I.

Introduction

Acting, the creation, on stage or on screen, of the image of a character involved in a series of actions and situations usually outlined by an author, or set out in a script or scenario, and conveyed by the actor to an audience.

The tools an actor uses to express character are his or her own attributes: vocal and physical apparatus, and emotional and kinetic responses. The finished performance may be enhanced by the use of, for instance, make-up, costume, masks, or specialized lighting. Styles of acting, and the status of the acting profession within society, have greatly fluctuated over the years.

II.

History

Of the origins of acting little is known, but it seems clear that its first manifestations were in religious rituals and the act of worship. The art of drama was born in the festivals of Dionysus in ancient Greece. Acting was a highly regarded profession and the actors, all of whom were men, formed their own guilds. In Roman theatre actors had a low social status, and many of them were slaves. With the fall of Rome in 476, and the advent of Christianity, the theatres were closed and the profession lapsed into obscurity.

Vestiges of these early forms of theatre were retained throughout the 11th to the 15th centuries by the troupes of jugglers, acrobats, mimics, and raconteurs who were the professional entertainers of the Middle Ages. These largely itinerant players performed in market places and the noblemen’s halls. They formed their own guilds and are thought to have influenced the custom of liturgical drama in Europe during the Middle Ages. These Bible plays were eventually taken out of the Church and became the miracle, mystery, and morality plays performed by amateur guild performers.

The profession of the actor was established in most European countries during the 16th century, for instance with the creation of the company at the Hôtel de Bourgogne in France, or with the commedia dell’arte in Italy (when the first professional actress, Isabella Andreini, appeared on the stage). In England, actors, all of whom were male, toured in troupes. The most famous actor of his day was Richard Burbage, who in 1576 founded the first permanent purpose-built theatre in London. Christopher Marlowe and William Shakespeare brought plays up to the level of great literature, although actors were still officially classed as “rogues and vagabonds”. During the English Renaissance, until theatre was banned altogether by the Puritans, female roles were played by boys and young men. It was not until 1660 when Charles II re-established the theatre in London that professional actresses appeared on the English stage, the most famous of this first generation being Nell Gwyn.

The craft of the actor was artistically reformed in the 18th century by David Garrick who was, in effect, British theatre’s first director. His less mannered style represented a move towards the Naturalism that flourished in the 19th century. The seminal proponent of this shift was Konstantin Stanislavski. His work at the Moscow Arts Theatre was to have enormous influence over the acting styles in the 20th century.

In the 19th century Henry Irving became the first actor to be knighted, a sign of the rise in status of the profession. In 1891 Irving was the president of the first Actors’ Association, which was replaced by the Equity, the professional actors’ association, in 1929. The 20th century has also seen the evolution of new acting techniques in response to the development of cinema and television. The modern actor must be a good “all-rounder”, equipped to work within these media as well as the traditional and alternative theatrical outlets.

III.

Styles of Acting

A.

Naturalism

Much contemporary drama has been influenced by Naturalism. The roots of Naturalism are in the theatre of the late 19th century and the movement is associated with the work of Konstantin Stanislavski. Naturalism requires the identification with the inner life of the character being played, from the whole being of the actor.

B.

The Method

Evolved from the work of Elia Kazan and later Lee Strasberg at the Actors Studio in New York, “The Method” is a systematic approach to actors’ training, based on the work of Stanislavski, which aims to enable the actor to give an authentic interpretation of a role based on personal experience. A method actor strives to “be” as opposed to “act”. This style of acting appears to be particularly suited to the cinema. Marlon Brando and Rod Steiger are examples of successful method actors.

C.

Improvisation

Improvised acting is done without a text, but with ground rules. Improvisation is used in actors’ training and in rehearsal to stimulate the imagination and encourage spontaneity. Much modern improvisation is influenced by the work of the commedia dell’arte. The work of Joan Littlewood’s Theatre Workshop and the plays and films of Mike Leigh are examples of actors being asked to use improvisation in the process of devising an entire piece. Comedy improvisation has become a genre in its own right, both in the theatre and on television.

D.

Epic Acting

Epic acting was developed by Bertolt Brecht, who saw theatre as a force for social change. He sought to engage intellectually with an audience and to stimulate their powers of reasoning, rather than arousing too much emotional involvement. To this end, he encouraged his actors to absorb themselves in their roles but to abandon the idea that they were “living the part”, and instead to play the character at a critical distance.

E.

Physical Theatre

“Physical theatre” is a broad term, embracing a range of acting styles and influences. The roots of physical theatre are in Expressionism and in the experimental work of Jerzi Grotowski. Grotowski envisaged a “poor” theatre, stripped of all the inessentials, such as lights, music, or text. The actors’ physical, vocal, and mental skills were the essence of this theatre. Today physical theatre has become more mainstream and incorporates the influences of dance, mime, and circus skills. Examples of what can be termed physical theatre include the work of director Richard Jones and that of the dance company DV8.

F.

Musicals

An actor working in musical theatre will need to combine being a good all-round actor, able to convey a wide range of emotions, with the development of movement and vocal skills. Both the singing voice and the dancing ability of the actor should be adaptable to different genres of musical.

IV.

Stage and Screen

The theatre actor performs on a stage where the focus for the audience is governed by the changes in the stage picture and indicated by the other actors. On screen, however, the audience sees the actor at much closer range and the screen actor must be able to adapt his or her approach to creating a role in response to the technical specifications of film-making.

Screen actors need to be aware of the technical vocabulary of film-making, especially the different shots and angles that will affect or limit a performance. An understanding of the relationship between actor and camera is crucial. The camera tends to magnify even the slightest of movements giving the screen actor the opportunity to work in the smallest detail. In close-up shots where the focus is on the actor’s thoughts, feelings, responses, and reactions, the actor must be confident that the camera registers the nuances of the performance.

For many actors the most difficult aspect of film-making is the discontinuity of the shooting schedule. In the theatre, scenes are played consecutively, allowing the actor to gather emotional momentum as the play progresses. This is not the case in film-making. Film and television scenes are made in little bits and pieces, or “shots”. The actor’s performance must retain the same level of concentration and emotional intensity from one shot to the next. The actor must be able to recall, in minute detail, the exact sequence of the character’s emotional response, often at a moment’s notice. This requires enormous concentration and mental coordination.

It is often said that film is a director’s medium, whereas theatre is an actor’s medium. Certainly in the theatre the actor is much more in charge of his performance. In film-making, it is the director who decides, for example, from where the actor’s performance is shot; how it is lit; and whether the voice will be dubbed by another actor. It will be the director’s vision of the character that is recreated during the final editing of the film.

V.

Schools and Companies

The objective of drama school is to provide training for students who wish to become professional actors. The student is encouraged to develop and refine voice, movement, and physical skills, and to apply these skills to work on productions for public performance. Specialist classes may also be taught. Most schools, although by no means all, use Stanislavski-based teaching methods. In Europe, the Centre of Theatre and Dance Research, the Theatre School in Amsterdam, and the Lecoque School in Paris are examples of schools specializing in teaching physical theatre skills from a range of influences.

Although there are now fewer of them, repertory theatres formally provide actors with a professional start. One play is performed in one place while another is in preparation. Experience and exposure, although little, if any, payment, may be acquired working “on the fringe“—this can mean anything from performing in a small room above a pub to a marketed enterprise in a small “studio” theatre. The theatre establishment in Britain is the subsidized theatre of the Royal Shakespeare Company and the Royal National Theatre. West End theatre holds a similar status but is a commercial enterprise.

VI.

An Actor’s Work

Acting is a profession that is chronically overpopulated and highly competitive. With well over 90 per cent of the profession unemployed at any one time, the aspiring actor must be prepared for the possibility that much time may well be spent “resting” (the theatrical euphemism for being unemployed). Most actors sign with an agent, as employers generally prefer to deal with them rather than directly with the actor. Agents deal with the business side of the actor’s career, and determine how much their client is paid, and their status in a performance (“billing”, from an actor’s place on the bill advertising the performance). The percentage an agent takes varies from job to job. It is a minimum of 10 per cent of the actor’s fee. In cooperatively run agencies each actor acts as an agent for fellow members.

Employers who think an actor might be suitable for a particular role may ask him or her to audition. This process can take many forms. At an audition for a theatre role the actor may be asked to perform a pre-prepared piece or pieces; sight-read; sing; or even improvise. For film and television work the actor may be asked to do a screen test which is an audition for the camera. If the audition is successful the actor accepts the role and a contract will be drawn up.

The amount of time spent in rehearsals varies. In the theatre there is generally a three-week rehearsal process for a full-length play. However, in the case of a devised piece, a longer period of time may be necessary. In television production far less time is allocated to rehearsals. Where there is text involved, the rehearsal period usually begins with a read through with all parties present. The actors may already have spent time researching their parts and learning their scripts.

Rehearsals are conducted by the director. The director’s role in the theatre varies. He or she might be the initiator of the entire piece or have a relatively superficial role. Usually by the time the play goes into rehearsal the director will have already had a great deal to do with the play. He or she may well have chosen the play, cast it, and made important decisions about how it will be performed. The director works closely with the producer, who is responsible for the business side of the production and, as such, may have a say in the casting.

For information on Eastern acting styles, see Japanese Drama; Chinese Theatre; Classical Indian Drama.