I.

Introduction

Rules of Rugby Union, a 15-a-side football game, which can also be played 7-a-side (when it is known as “sevens”). The goal posts on a standard pitch are 5.64 m (18 ft 6 in) apart and have a crossbar which is 3 m (10 ft) above the ground. The ball is oval and has the approximate dimensions: length, 28 to 30 cm (11 to 11 y in); circumference, 58 to 62 cm (22 to 24 in). The game is controlled by a referee with the help of two touch judges or linesmen. In senior competitions a game has two 40-minute halves with a 5-minute interval. Points are scored in the following ways: (1) a try—scored by a player grounding the ball in his opponents’ in-goal area (worth 5 points); (2) a goal—achieved by kicking the ball (by a place-kick or drop kick) over the crossbar and between the uprights. Goals can be scored after a try, when the try is “converted” (worth 2 points), and from a penalty kick (worth 3 points). In practice most goals are scored by place-kicks. There is also the drop goal, when the ball is kicked on the half-volley in open play (worth 3 points).

II.

Teams

A team comprises eight forwards and seven backs. There are two prop forwards and a hooker, two second-row forwards (or locks), two flankers and a Number 8. The backs consist of a scrum-half, a stand-off half (or fly-half), two centre three-quarters, two wing three-quarters and a full-back.

III.

Start of Play and Scrums

A game begins with a place-kick from the middle of the centre line. After half-time the game is restarted in the same way. After a score the game restarts with a drop kick from the centre spot. Thereafter each side tries to gain as much possession of the ball as possible and, by dint of passing manoeuvres (plus kicking to gain ground and position), to score tries. As in rugby league the ball must be passed backwards or laterally in order to get it forward. The ball may be knocked, thrown, or deflected from one player to another in any direction except forwards. If a player unintentionally throws the ball forwards the referee orders a “scrum” where the infringement occurred. A scrum is formed by the two sets of forwards closing up for the ball to be put on the ground between them. A minimum of five players per side take part; the number is usually eight. There must be three players of each side bound together in the front row of the scrum. The front rows crouch and interlock so that no player’s head is next to the head of a team-mate. All other players in the scrum must bind with at least one arm and hand round the body of a team-mate. There are two scrum formations adopted by teams: the 3-2-3 and the 3-4-1; the latter is generally favoured, with variations such as 3-3-2 and 3-3-1 for forward link penetration with the half-backs. When the ball is put into the scrum (usually by the scrum-half) it has to go into the middle of the tunnel made by the two front rows who will then attempt to “hook” or heel the ball back through their scrum so that another movement may begin, often through the half-backs and three-quarters. A scrum is also ordered when a knock-on occurs. This happens when a player loses possession of the ball and it goes forwards or when the ball hits a player on the hand or arm and goes forwards to touch the ground or another player before the player who has been hit can catch it.

Two recurrent and important features of open play are the “ruck” and the “maul”. A ruck is formed by one or more players from each team in physical contact and on their feet, closing around the ball when it is on the ground and between them. A maul is formed by one or more players from each team (at least three in total) on their feet and in physical contact, closing around a player who is carrying the ball. A maul ends when the ball is on the ground, the ball or a player carrying it emerges from the maul, or when a scrum is ordered. When the ball becomes unplayable in a maul a scrum is ordered. Neither ruck nor maul can take place in the in-goal areas.

IV.

Tackling

Tackling (as in rugby league and American football) is an essential part of the game. A player is tackled when he is carrying the ball and is held by his opponent(s) and brought to the ground, or when he is held and the ball touches the ground. The ball-carrier is brought to the ground if he is held and has one or both knees on the ground or is sitting on the ground, or is on top of another player who is on the ground. A tackled player must pass or release the ball at once. When he is brought to the ground he must attempt to get away from the ball immediately. Any player on the ground after a tackle must get to his feet before he can take any further part in play. After the tackled player has released the ball all other players must be on their feet when they play the ball. No player may wilfully fall on or over a player lying on the ground with the ball in his possession or close to him, and it is illegal for a player to fall over the ball as it comes out of a scrum or ruck.

V.

Line-Out

The “line-out” and the throw-in at the line-out are an important part of the game. A line-out is formed by at least two players from each team, who line up in single parallel lines at right angles to the touchline. The team throwing the ball in determines the maximum number of players from each team who are to line up (the opposition can have fewer but not more). There must be a 1-m (3-ft) gap between the two lines of players. The line-out starts 5 m (16 ft) from the touchline and can extend up to 15 m (50 ft) from it. The ball must be thrown in straight by a player outside the field of play and it must travel a minimum of 5 m (16 ft) before it touches the ground or another player. If the throw is incorrect then the opposition can either take another throw-in or a scrum 15 m (50 ft) from the touchline.

When, in the normal course of play, a player carrying the ball, or the ball itself, goes into touch (that is, over a sideline) a throw-in is awarded to the opposing team. This may be taken as a quick throw-in or as a formed line-out. When the ball is in touch the place at which it must be thrown in is as follows: (1) when the ball is in touch from a penalty kick or a kick within 22 m (72 ft) of the kicker’s goal line, it is at the place where the ball went into touch; (2) if the ball goes directly into touch without bouncing after being kicked other than as above, or if the kicker has received the ball outside his 22 m (72 ft) line and retreated behind that line before kicking, the throw-in is opposite the place from which the ball was kicked, or at the place where it pitches into touch (if that is nearer to the kicker’s goal line); (3) at a quick throw-in—from any point where the ball went into touch and the thrower’s goal line.

VI.

Kicking

Kicking is a very important part of the tactics and strategy of the game, far more so than in rugby league. Apart from the place-kick and the drop kick, the “punt” is frequently used. To punt the ball a player drops it from his hands and kicks it before it reaches the ground. A good kicker can impart spin to the ball (a screw kick), which directs the ball in the desired direction and may also affect its movement if and when it strikes the ground. The punt is often used to find touch and/or gain ground. It may travel a few feet, or 60 m (66 yd) or more. The “grubber kick” is a form of punt by which the player kicks the ball so that it takes a low trajectory and then skids or bounces along the ground. This method is often used to gain touch or position. Another kind of punt is the “chip”, a short punt over the heads of opponents which can be followed up. A variation is the “up-and-under” or “Garryowen”—a high lofted kick upfield which stays aloft long enough for players on the kicker’s side to run forwards and get underneath it. Finally, there is the “cross kick” which comes into operation when a wing three-quarter or other player, while running near the touchline, is hemmed in by opponents and kicks high and across into the centre of the field for other players to follow up and gather.

The punt, to gain ground and position, is usually used when a free-kick is awarded for an infringement, and on many occasions when a penalty kick is awarded. At the free-kick the opponents must retire towards their goal line until they are 10 m (33 ft) away from the mark, and the kicker’s team must be behind him. The kicker may choose to take a quick free-kick or “tap penalty” by tapping the ball to himself and then pass the ball. Again, the opponents must retire 10 m (33 ft). A free-kick is also awarded for a “fair catch”, made by a player who, while in his own 22 m (72 ft) area, catches the ball cleanly from an opponent’s kick, has at least one foot on the ground, and calls “mark!” as he makes the catch. In this case the kick must be taken by the player who makes the mark. A penalty kick may be a drop kick, a place-kick, a tap (quick free-kick), or a punt. The object may be to score a goal, gain ground by kicking for touch (in which case a place-kick may not be used), or to gain ground by kicking forwards for the kicker’s team to follow up and attempt to gain possession. Again, the opponents must retire 10 m (33 ft) and the kicker’s team must be behind the kicker. If the kicker is going for a goal then the opponents may not move until the kick has been taken.

A drop kick is obligatory to restart the game from the 22 m (72 ft) line after the ball has been propelled over the dead-ball line or after a defender has touched the ball down in his in-goal area without having been responsible for propelling the ball over his own goal line. This kick-off is customarily called a “drop-out” or a “22”.

VII.

Infringements

There is a very large number of possible infringements in rugby union, more than in any other field game, and because of this it is a very difficult game to referee. The most complex rules concern offside. Basically, a player is offside when he is in front of a team-mate who has the ball or in front of the team-mate who last played the ball. This, in fact, often happens, and is “technical” offside. In such a situation he is temporarily out of the game but is penalized if he takes part in the game or attempts to take part while in an offside position. If he does do this he is penalized by a penalty kick at the point of infringement. No penalty is given if the player’s position is unavoidable and if he retires at once and without interfering with an opponent. There are at least 15 possible offside infringements, and the offside laws at the scrum, line-out, ruck, and maul require the closest reading of the laws.

The foul and misconduct laws are comprehensive. A player is not allowed to strike, hack, kick, or trip an opponent, though he may “hand off” an opponent with the flat palm of his hand when the opponent is trying to tackle him. Nor may a player make a dangerous tackle (for example, a high tackle around the neck and head) or tackle with a stiff arm. He may not charge, grab, or obstruct an opponent who does not have the ball except in a maul or ruck. All such offences are penalized by a penalty kick. Some offences may lead to a player being sent off the field in which case the player is reported and may not play again in the match. A deliberate knock-on or forward pass (throw) is penalized by a penalty kick. A penalty kick is also given against a player who deliberately passes or throws the ball into touch. A referee may award a penalty try (though this is rare) if the player would probably have scored but for unfair play or unlawful interference by the defending team. In this case the try is awarded between the posts.

VIII.

Tactics and Strategies

Game plans and tactics are complex and various and alter considerably according to the state of the game and the strengths and weaknesses of the opponents. Fundamentally it is the function of the forwards to provide “good ball” and “quality possession” from scrum, line-out, ruck, and maul so that the half-backs and three-quarters can launch running and passing attacks in which, frequently, the forwards may also at various stages be involved.

In a classic three-quarter movement the scrum-half gets the ball to his stand-off half with a long pass, which he may be able to achieve if he has received good ball: that is, he has received the ball from his forwards quickly and cleanly and is unhampered by opposition when he makes his pass. The stand-off makes ground while drawing his opposite number, and then passes to his inside centre who makes ground and draws his opposite number. The inside centre passes to the outside centre who also makes ground and draws his opposite number before passing to his wing (traditionally, the wingers are the fastest players on the field). The winger will attempt to elude his opposite number by going outside him, or he may cut inside him towards other members of his team who should be up in support.

To confuse the defence and create openings is an essential part of three-quarter play, and of play in general. The swerve, the jink, the feint, the dummy, and change of pace are basic individual methods.

A very important feature of the game is “second phase” play. This is the deliberate setting up of a ruck or maul with the object of achieving “second phase possession”. The following are standard methods: (1) A forward breaks from the line-out or scrum with the ball and is tackled. A maul or ruck follows with all or most of the forwards involved and the defenders are committed to this; so is the player who made the tackle who is thus temporarily out of action. When the defence has been committed the attacking side releases the ball for its three-quarters to run with it. (2) The ball is released from a scrum or line-out (or ruck or maul) and is passed as far as the position of inside centre; he runs and exactly the same procedure is followed as in (1). (3) From a short tapped penalty the ball is given to a powerful forward who charges, makes what ground he can, and then the procedure is again as in (1). Such a move may be executed two or three times in succession, and is comparable with the “play the ball” method of rugby league. There are variations on the basic principles, involving the scrum-half, the Number 8 and the flank forwards. All such moves may involve the particular use of the “blind-side” or “open-side” (the blind-side is that side of the scrum, maul, or ruck that is nearest to the touchline, and is the narrower side; the open-side is the other side of scrum, maul, or ruck).

All members of a team are committed to defensive roles. The half-backs and three-quarters have to mark their opposite numbers, and the full-back is the last line of defence. All forwards are committed to defence in most aspects of the play, particularly by means of in-depth cover across the field. Flank forwards have attacking defensive roles (for example, tackling the opposing halves and three-quarters).

Like many other field games rugby is influenced by climate and weather, and thus by the state of the ground and the degree of wind. The tactics and strategy on a wet, muddy, and windy day will be very different from those on a dry, calm day.

There are many technical aspects of the game which demand a detailed study of theory and practice as well as a close understanding and knowledge of the rules. As in football, rugby league, and hockey an advantage law operates: a referee does not stop the game for an infringement if the non-offending team has already gained some advantage anyway.

IX.

Sevens

The main variant of the 15-a-side game is 7-a-side rugby or “sevens”. This is played on the same-sized field as a normal game, but there are only seven players in each team and the game lasts for seven minutes each way with one minute for half-time. Basically there are three forwards and four backs; a scrum is formed by the three forwards on each side. The tactics are enormously different from those in 15-a-side.

The rugby football union has also devised “mini” and “midi” rugby: a series of variations on the 15-a-side game so that young children can be introduced to the sport. There is also “new image” rugby—a form of touch rugby, ranging from 3-a-side to 12-a-side. There are separate codes of rules for these variations.

See also Rugby Union, History of.