II.

The Stages of Film Production

A.

Pre-Production

Pre-production relates to all stages of production before the shooting of a film, all the planning and preparatory stages necessary to achieve a smooth, cost-effective, and artistically successful final product. This involves the development of the “idea” into a story, treatment, or scenario that can be converted into a screenplay, with enough dialogue and description to give a clear idea of the production values of the proposed film. Although the scale, whether documentary or feature, varies considerably, the principle remains the same for all productions, and budgets are established early in the process, sometimes even before pre-production begins. Intermediate stages are sometimes skipped and the concept taken directly to screenplay stage, but, either way, all the main structural and narrative problems need to be resolved before proceeding further, if expensive adjustments and salvaging operations are to be avoided later.

The key figures in pre-production are the producer, writer, and director, any one of whom may initiate the process. These roles may be combined, but there are recognized advantages in maintaining separate and distinct responsibilities, with the producer in control of the budget, taking responsibility for expenditure and control of the production. The track records of the writer and director, as well as those of the producer and intended lead actors, are important in raising finance, which usually comes, in substantial part, from the distributor, frequently a television company, as well as from other film finance organizations.

Once these matters are settled, detailed planning is necessary; contractual arrangements are made with the cast, and with key technical personnel such as the lighting cameraman, the designer, frequently the editor, and sometimes the composer. All stages have to dovetail neatly together—timing needs to be exact, as even a single day wasted can throw the budget of a film hopelessly out. The production manager takes responsibility for organizing the smooth running of the operation. Stars, technicians, equipment, transport, and so on, all have to be at the right place at the right time and the organization is sometimes compared to a military operation. Once more, there are no absolute rules, but, in general, the film is planned in detail at this stage.

B.

Production

A film is said to be “in production” when it is actually being made, including all the necessary physical preparation. The production manager, assistants, construction artists, lighting technicians, and supporting cast all have to be contracted. The number and range of talents required depends on the scale of the production and can run into hundreds. The credits that accompany any contemporary film are only an indication of the complexity of organization required. In the period of the large film production companies—the so-called “studio era”—armies of permanently employed staff moved from one production to another and gave films the distinctive character of their studio. Today, with independent production, these people are freelancers and are employed on separately negotiated short-term agreements. Locations have to be found, sets constructed, schedules planned, transport arranged, film stock ordered, and tests made.

C.

Post-Production

Post-production covers the part of the film-making process that takes place after completion of the shooting, when the film is assembled and shaped into its final form. It includes sound editing—the addition of sound and effects tracks and their integration with the other sound and dialogue in the film—the editing of the film, and the composition of the film's score. Sometimes post-synchronization (substituting one voice for another), dubbing, and other techniques are part of the process. In all these aspects, the editor, usually in association with the director and producer, takes the main responsibility.

Only a proportion of the shot film remains in the final product; unsatisfactory takes, ends of reels, and redundant shots are discarded, and the ratio of used to exposed film may be anything from 5:1 to 40:1, depending on circumstances and budget. Frequently, the editor is instructed as to the final length of the film and has to retain the qualities and themes for which the director is searching, while discreetly paring down the film. In Britain, assembling and editing frequently begin while shooting is still taking place. In other countries this is less common. The “assembly”, which enables continuity to be seen, leads to a “rough cut”, and finally to what is popularly described as the “director's cut”. This, however, is not necessarily the finished film, for the producer or others with financial interests may want changes for commercial, or other, reasons, once they or “preview” audiences have seen the film. In addition, some territories forbid certain themes, such as divorce or birth control, and special versions may have to be produced for these markets. Thus, there may be many versions of the same film in existence.

As a result, in recent years it has become increasingly common for films to be available in two (or more) versions, the commercially released version and the “director's cut”. This may happen when the director is dissatisfied with the film as initially released, as in the case of Apocalypse Now (1979), Blade Runner (1982), and Dances with Wolves (1990), or when an initially disparaged film attains cult status, as did Heaven’s Gate (1980). In some cases, when footage is recoverable, this has led to older films being “restored”, such as Touch of Evil (1958) and The Wicker Man (1973). With the rise of DVDs, whose technology lends itself perfectly to such exercises, the “director’s cut” has become almost commonplace.