I.

Introduction

Kosovo (Albanian, Kosova), republic on the Balkan Peninsula in south-eastern Europe, bordered on the north and east by Serbia, on the south-east by the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM), on the south-west by Albania, and on the west by Montenegro. Formerly part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and latterly an autonomous region within Serbia, it was run under a United Nations administration (UNMIK) from 1999 before declaring its independence from Serbia on February 17, 2008. The area of Kosovo is approximately 10,887 sq km(4,203 sq mi). The capital and largest city is Prishtinë (Serbian, Priština).

II.

Land and Resources

The republic is predominantly hilly and mountainous with two central flat fluvial basins (the Metohija basin in the west and the Kosov basin in the east) separated by the Cicavica mountains. The average altitude is 800 m (2,624 ft). Several high mountain ranges encircle the country with elevations of 2,000 to 2,500 m (6,562 to 8,000 ft). To the north are the Kopaonik mountains and to the south the Šar Mountains. Gjeravica (Ðeravica), part of the Prokletije mountain range near the border with Albania, is the republic’s highest mountain at 2,565 m (8,415 ft). Karst scenery is widespread along with pasture and wooded lands.

A.

Rivers and Lakes

The main rivers are the White Drin, which forms the headwaters of the Drin and which runs towards the Adriatic Sea; the Sitnica; the South Morava; and the Ibar, which flows into the Danube. The biggest lakes are the Gazivoda in northern Kosovo, Radonjiæ, Batlava, and Badovac. Kosovo also has a large number of karst springs, thermal and mineral water springs, glacial valleys and lakes, and artificially created lakes.

B.

Climate

Kosovo has a generally continental climate with cold, dry winters and warm, humid summers. Temperatures range from 30° C (86° F) in the summer months of July and August to as low as –10° C (14° F) in the winter months of December and January. The maximum precipitation is in winter, when snow regularly falls, especially at higher elevations.

C.

Natural Resources

Kosovo is relatively rich in mineral resources with substantial reserves of lignite coal. There are also reserves of lead, zinc, magnesium, bauxite, and nickel. About 39 per cent of the country is forested and timber is an important product. The basins have fertile soils and about 52 per cent of the land is devoted to agriculture.

D.

Plants and Animals

The region is one of the most ecologically varied in Europe with rich flora species (18 per cent of all European flora). Deciduous species of tree, especially beech forests, dominate. There are also several varieties of fir tree and pine with increases in altitude. The region is also home to the black mulberry, black oak, planes, poplars, and ash trees. Kosovo is the habitat of a variety of species, including rabbits, lynx, bear, chamois, wolf, roe deer, and wild boar. Native fish such as carp, eel, catfish, and salmon trout are also found.

E.

Environmental Concerns

Kosovo has a national park, the 380 sq km (147 sq mi) Šar National Park in the mountainous south of the country. There are also two regional parks, and numerous nature reserves; despite this, less than 1 per cent of the country’s territory is protected. The former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) signed the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands and other environmental treaties.

Much of the land has been degraded by open-cast lignite mining and there is contaminated water, and air and soil pollution because of heavy industry. In the mid-1990s, less than 10 per cent of the country’s wastewater was treated before being released into rivers and lakes, and deforestation was accelerating. Environmental issues were largely ignored during the warfare of the 1990s.

The NATO bombing campaign of 1999 impacted the environment with fears of damage caused by depleted uranium. Landmines and abandoned ordnance also affected the environment. The international embargo on Serbia put pressure on the region’s natural resources, and efforts to prevent pollution—worsened by outdated technologies—were largely abandoned.

III.

Population

Kosovo had a population of 1,956,196 in 1991. However, the census was largely boycotted by ethnic Albanians and this married to subsequent events has made this figure highly inaccurate. During the fighting many thousands of people (an estimated 40 per cent of the population) fled the country while a significant proportion was internally displaced. It is believed that most refugees returned at the end of the fighting. Estimates from 2007 place the population figure at 2.1 million. Approximately 70 per cent of the population is rural; 30 per cent is urban.

A.

Population Characteristics

The majority (around 90 per cent) of the population of Kosovo is ethnic Albanian. Most of the rest of the inhabitants are Serbs and Montenegrins (6 per cent combined), who generally live in the north of the republic. Bosniaks (Muslim Slavs), Turks, Gorani, Croats, and Roma form the remainder of the population.

B.

Principal Cities

Prishtinë (Priština), the capital, has an estimated population (2007) of between 300,000 and 500,000. It is a commercial and transport centre for the surrounding mining region. Prizren (170,000) and Pejë (Peæ) (72,000), the latter once serving (1557-1766) as the patriarchal seat of the Serbian Orthodox Church, are other major cities. Gjakovë (Ðakovica) (72,000), Ferizaj (Uroševac), (72,000), Mitrovicë (Mitrovica) (71,000), Vushtrri (Vuèitrn) (42,000), and Podujevë (Podujevo) (40,000) all have sizeable populations.

C.

Religion

Religious affiliation is divided among mainly ethnic lines. Albanians are generally Muslims. Most Serbians are adherents of the Serbian Orthodox Church, a branch of the Orthodox Church. Roman Catholicism is also practised.

D.

Language

Gheg Albanian is spoken by a large minority of ethnic Albanians in Kosovo. The official language of Serbia is Serbian, spoken by a majority of the population. Serbian is a Slavic language written in both the Cyrillic alphabet and Roman scripts by Serbs and Montenegrins. Balkan Romani and Sinte Romani are mother tongues for some inhabitants.

E.

Education

The University of Prishtina (as the University of Priština) was purged of its Albanian students and faculty in the 1980s, but re-opened in late 2001 and is now an Albanian-language institution. The Serbian-language University of Mitrovica is the successor institution to the University of Priština, relocated to Mitrovica in northern Kosovo.

F.

Culture

The monasteries and churches of the Medieval Monuments in Kosovo was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2004 and added to the List of World Heritage in Danger in 2006 following damage during the political conflict.

IV.

Economy

The economy, while growing, is still dependent on international aid and assistance as well as remittances from the international diaspora. Unemployment is high and the populace is one of the poorest in Europe. GDP per capita is $1,800 (2007 estimate).

A.

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing

The major crops of Kosovo include grains (maize, wheat, and barley), potatoes, plums, grapes, and tobacco, and timber is an important product. There are also horticulture and viticulture industries. Cattle and sheep are raised in Kosovo's highlands.

B.

Mining

Although Kosovo has important deposits of lead and zinc, as well as significant deposits of lignite, chromites, and magnesite, the province has long been one of the poorest regions in Europe.

C.

Manufacturing

Principal manufactures include cement and sulphuric acid.

D.

Energy

There are lignite-fired thermal power stations. 3.996 billion kWh of electricity was produced in 2006. Reconstruction and modernization of the energy sector is being embarked upon.

E.

Currency and Banking

On January 1, 2001, Kosovo adopted the Euro as its currency; as at early 2008, 0.68 Euros equalled US$1. The new dinar (Serbian currency) is also in circulation. Since 2006 the Kosovan banking sector has been regulated by the Central Banking Authority of Kosovo (CBAK). There are six registered banks with around 250 branches.

F.

Commerce and Trade

Food products are the largest single import segment, accounting for 30 per cent of imports. Other imports include wood, petroleum, chemicals, machinery, and electrical equipment. Plastics and wood contribute most to exports, followed by metals, which are almost exclusively derived from scrap, leather products, machinery, and appliances.

G.

Labour

The majority of the labour force is engaged in agriculture. The unemployment rate is high at 43 per cent (2007).

H.

Transport

In 2008 there were ten airports in the country with a major international airport at Prishtinë. As at 2005 there were 430 km (267 mi) of railways and 1,925 km (1,196 mi) of paved roads.

I.

Communications

The public service broadcaster is Radio Television Kosovo (RTK). It consists of a television service and two radio stations: Radio Kosova and Radio Blue Sky. Kosovo has ten daily newspaper titles.

V.

Government

The head of state is the president, who is elected to five-year terms by the Assembly. The president can dismiss the Assembly and nominates the prime minister. A new constitution, following the declaration of independence, was drafted in early 2008 and came into effect on June 15, 2008.

A.

Executive and Legislature

The Assembly of Kosovo is headed by a prime minister and two deputy prime ministers. The first elections to the 120-seat Assembly were held in 2001; 100 seats are filled by direct votes, 10 are reserved for Serbian candidates, and 10 for other communities such as the Roma, Turks, and Bosniaks. Elections are held every four years.

B.

Judiciary

Part of the UN’s mandate under the United Nations Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) was to establish a working and impartial judicial system in the country. UNMIK appointed international judges and prosecutors to district courts throughout Kosovo and to the Supreme Court to work specifically on cases involving alleged war crimes or inter-ethnic violence. The republic’s court system consists of a Supreme Court, a commercial court, and district and municipal courts.

C.

Local Government

There are thirty municipalities: Deçan (Deèani), Dragash (Dragaš), Ferizaj (Uroševac), Fushë Kosovë (Kosovo Polje), Gjakovë (Ðakovica), Gjilan (Gnjilane), Gllogovc (Glogovac), Istog (Istok), Kaçanik (Kaèanik), Kamenicë (Kamenica), Klinë (Klina), Leposaviæ (Leposaviq), Lipjan (Lipljan), Malishevë (Mališevo), Mitrovicë (Mitrovica), Novobërdë (Novo Brdo), Obiliq (Obiliæ), Pejë (Peæ), Podujevë (Podujevo), Prishtinë (Priština), Prizren, Rahovec (Orahovac), Shtime (Štimlje), Skenderaj (Srbica), Štrpce (Shtërpcë), Suharekë (Suva Reka), Viti (Vitina), Vushtrri (Vuèitrn), Zubin Potok, Zveèan (Zveçan).

D.

Political Parties

As of 2008 the largest parties in the Assembly were the Democratic Party of Kosovo (PDK; Partia Demokratike e Kosovës) with 37 seats and the Democratic League of Kosovo (LDK; Lidhja Demokratike e Kosovës) with 25.

E.

Health and Welfare

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the average life expectancy in Serbia and Montenegro (2004) is 72.7 years. The infant mortality (2002) is 12 deaths per 1,000 live births.

F.

Defence

Defence since 1999 has been organized by the UN-mandated, NATO-led force known as KFOR (Kosovo Force). Its remit has included defending the country against possible Yugoslav/Serbian threats and to demilitarize the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), the guerrilla group seeking independence from the FRY and successor states (see also History, below). It has also been involved in more general security issues and repatriation of displaced peoples.

G.

International Organizations

Upon its declaration of independence in February 2008 Kosovo was internationally recognized by a number of, mainly Western, nations. Since 2006 Kosovo has been a member of the Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA). It is seeking membership of the United Nations, European Union, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, International Monetary Fund, and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.

VI.

History

From the second millennium BC, the Illyrians (ancestors of the present-day Albanians) inhabited the Balkan Peninsula, including what is now Kosovo. The Illyrian territory of Dardania, which comprised present-day Kosovo, part of what is now the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM), and lands now in south-west Serbia, was eventually annexed by the Roman Empire. From the 8th to the 12th century, Kosovo was the centre of the medieval state of Raška (Rascia). Towards the end of the 12th century, the Serbian ruler Stefan Nemanja annexed Kosovo and, for a time, Prizren served as the capital of the Serbian princes. During this period, the Serbian population in Kosovo increased.

A.

Incorporation Into Yugoslavia

In 1389 an invading Ottoman Turkish army under Sultan Murad I inflicted heavy casualties on a Serbian army under Prince Lazar at the Battle of Kosovo at the Kosovo Polje (“Field of the Blackbirds”), leading to the subsequent conquest of all of Serbia (in 1459) by the Ottoman Empire. Kosovo was the scene of numerous subsequent anti-Turkish uprisings, but only in mid-1912, during the Balkan Wars, were the Turks finally expelled, and an independent Albanian state proclaimed, which was to include Kosovo and portions of the western part of the region of Macedonia. However, at Russia's insistence, the Great Powers divided Kosovo between Serbia and Montenegro. In 1918, Kosovo was incorporated into the newly established Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, later called Yugoslavia. Local Muslim Albanians staged uprisings between 1918 and 1919, which were ruthlessly crushed. The Belgrade government resorted to forced expulsions of Albanians, closure of Albanian schools, land confiscations, and importation of Serbian settlers.

During World War II, Kosovo was appended to Italian-occupied Albania—a move generally welcomed by local Albanians—and local Serbs were forced out. Kosovo's Albanians resisted reincorporation into Yugoslavia, but by July 1945, the Partisan army of Josip Broz Tito had succeeded in crushing Albanian resistance. Kosovo was organized as an administrative subunit of the Republic of Serbia—at first as an autonomous region, but later elevated to the status of an autonomous province after Albanian riots in 1968. Renewed riots in 1981 resulted in the purging of Albanians from positions of power and protests by local Serbs.

B.

NATO Air Strikes

In March 1989 Slobodan Milošević, president of Serbia, eliminated all vestiges of Kosovo's autonomy and extended anti-Albanian discrimination, placing the region under effective military occupation—a move that also hastened the breakup of Yugoslavia as the other republics feared the imposition of direct rule from Belgrade. During the Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian War Milošević was more intent upon expansionist tactics in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina to create a “Greater Serbian” state than dealing with Kosovo. The Dayton Peace Accord of 1995 ended the war.

From 1998 there were increasing attacks by the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) on Serbian targets. Serbian forces launched retaliatory attacks and cracked down brutally on the Albanian populace, which impelled Western powers to threaten military action against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. With the attacks continuing and the failure to reach a peace deal at Rambouillet, the West launched an air offensive across Serbia and Kosovo in March 1999. In response, the Yugoslav army and security units drove hundreds of thousands of Albanians out of the province in a prearranged strategy of “ethnic cleansing”, creating a refugee crisis in neighbouring states.

By May 1999 the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) estimated that almost 650,000 civilians had been forced out of Kosovo since March. There were also reports of massacres inside Kosovo, especially of young men. The Western air bombardment steadily increased in intensity, with more than 4,500 sorties flown by the end of April. Initially the bombing was of a relatively low intensity with infrastructure targets included. The West hesitated to commit ground troops, while Kosovo guerrillas of the KLA could do little against regular Yugoslav army units.

However, on June 9, 1999, after 11 weeks of NATO air raids, the Miloševiæ regime agreed to withdraw all its troops from Kosovo and signed a peace agreement on less advantageous terms than those previously offered at Rambouillet.

C.

UN Administration

The UN Security Council endorsed the Kosovo peace agreement and established the UN Interim Administration Unit in Kosovo (UNMIK) to begin the process of building peace, democracy, stability and self-government in the shattered province. KFOR, the NATO-led multinational peacekeeping force, was set up to oversee the return of approximately 850,000 Kosovo Albanian refugees. The KLA was disbanded in September, but was reconstituted as a 3,000-strong civilian defence body called the Kosovo Protection Corps (TMK).

The international community pledged to aid reconstruction in the wake of the Serb military operations and NATO air strikes. Approximately 500,000 people were left homeless, and over 120,000 buildings damaged or destroyed. Mine clearance became an important task and more than 190 mass graves were discovered (containing around 2,000 bodies).

The first democratic parliamentary election in Kosovo took place in November 2001. The Democratic League of Kosovo (LDK), under ethnic Albanian leader Ibrahim Rugova, won almost 46 per cent of the vote. The Democratic Party of Kosovo (PDK) came second, with nearly 26 per cent of the vote. A power-sharing deal between the LDK and PDK was agreed at the end of February 2002, after three attempts by the Assembly to elect the province’s first president had failed. Rugova was finally voted in at the beginning of March; he nominated Bajram Rexhepi of the rival PDK as prime minister.

In March 2004 violence broke out between Serbs and ethnic Albanians in the town of Mitrovica. Nineteen people were killed in the clashes, and churches and houses were destroyed—the unrest was the worst in the region since 1999. Parliamentary elections were held in October, and Rugova’s party—the LDK—performed well. However, only around 1 per cent of the Serbian electorate voted, following an appeal by Serbian prime minister Vojislav Koštunica for all Serbs in Kosovo to boycott the polls. After the elections, Rugova's party forged a coalition with former KLA commander Ramush Haradinaj’s Alliance for the Future of Kosovo (AAK). In December, Rugova was re-elected as president by Kosovo’s parliament, with Haradinaj appointed as prime minister.

In March 2005 Haradinaj was indicted by the International War Crimes Tribunal at The Hague, on charges relating to his role in the conflict in the region in 1998-1999. He immediately resigned as prime minister, nominating Bajram Kosumi, deputy leader of the AAK, as his successor. Later that year, in November, the preliminary phases of UN-sponsored talks on the future status of the province began. However, President Rugova died in early 2006, shortly before the direct negotiations between the ethnic Serbian and Kosovan leaders were scheduled to open. The following month the Kosovo Assembly named Fatmir Sejdiu, a former LDK parliamentarian, as Rugova's successor, and shortly afterwards Kosumi was replaced as prime minister by Agim Ceku, another former commander in the KLA.

The long-awaited meeting between Sejdiu and Ceku and the Serbian president Boris Tadiæ and prime minister Koštunica—the first such meeting since 1999—finally took place in Vienna in July. The talks, which were presided over by UN officials, failed to reach a significant breakthrough.

A plan for Kosovan independence was unveiled by UN envoy Martti Ahtisaari in February 2007 and was supported by Albanian Kosovans and rejected by the Serbian populace. Russia threatened to veto the plan, although the US and a significant part of the EU was in favour. Assembly elections were held in November 2007 and were won by Hashim Thaci’s opposition PDK, which won 34 per cent of the vote compared to the ruling LKD with 22 per cent. The Serbian turnout was low, in response to the Serbian government’s call for yet another boycott. The PDK announced its intention to declare independence for the province in December but the EU advised caution, requesting that independence be supervised under the auspices of the international community.

The declaration of independence was formally approved by the Kosovan Assembly on February 17, 2008. Over the days that followed, a number of foreign parties—including the United Kingdom, the majority of the EU member countries, and the United States—officially recognized Kosovo’s independence. However, Serbia refused to acknowledge the declaration, dismissing it as illegal. Kosovo’s new constitution came into effect in June.