III.

Political and Military Structure

Little is known about how individual Etruscan cities were organized. It has been suggested, however, that the warrior heads of aristocratic families conquered those areas that were eventually to become independent Etruscan cities, each ruled over by its own king. As a result, the Etruscans never achieved a truly national unity, although individual cities sent colonists to neighbouring regions and often entered into diplomatic alliances not only with each other but also with foreign states. The history of the region indicates that each Etruscan city responded to crises in terms that were deemed beneficial for its own survival without regard for the interests of its neighbours.

The characteristic form of governmental organization in Etruria was the confederacy of the city states. At one time there appear to have been three separate Etruscan confederacies—the northern, the southern, and the central—each made up of 12 cities. The only confederacy of historical significance was the central confederacy, a loose political and religious organization that convened annually at the shrine of the deity Voltumna, overlooking Lacus Volsiniensis (now Lake Bolsena) in Latium. Its accomplishments were meagre, however, as it was probably preoccupied with religious rather than political matters.

No authoritative list of the 12 member city states of the central confederacy survives. Their names, however, can be deduced from information provided by Livy, Dionysius, and Diodorus Siculus: Arretium (Arezzo), Caere (Cerveteri), Clusium, Cortona, Perusia (Perugia), Populonia, Rusellae, Tarquinii (Tarquinia), Veii (Veio), Vetulonia, Volaterrae (Volterra), and Vulci. Magistrates, apparently known as lucomones, were elected annually from the nobility to govern each Etruscan city.

At the height of their power the Etruscans were an imposing military force, although this was probably not coordinated among the city states. The infantry appears to have been the mainstay of the force. The principal weapons were the spear and the battleaxe, the latter being used for throwing as well as for striking. The bow and the javelin were also used; arrows and javelins are frequently found in excavated Etruscan tombs. Helmets and shields of various designs were adapted from those of the Greeks, the Gauls, and of the tribes inhabiting the eastern Alps. Swords were apparently rare and highly prized. The cavalry was probably an important part of the Etruscan army, while chariots have been found in large tombs. The navy was remarkably powerful and virtually dominated the Mediterranean for almost two centuries.