II.

The Middle Ages

Medieval Spanish literature deals primarily with Christian themes but is also marked by the rich Islamic and Jewish cultures that flourished in the Spain of that period.

A.

11th and 12th Centuries

The earliest extant literary works in the Castilian language are short lyric poems known as jarchas, which date from the fifth decade of the 11th century and were attached to the texts of early Arabic or Hebrew poems written in Spain. The next earliest are epics composed by the juglares, the Spanish minstrels who sang in village squares and castle halls during the Middle Ages. The principal subjects of these epics were the struggles waged by the rulers of the various Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula, such as Castile, against the Moors who had conquered most of the peninsula early in the 8th century, and the rivalries among Castilian and other Christian noblemen of the peninsula during that period. Spanish epic poetry reflected Germanic, Arabic, and especially French influences, but it differed from its models in that it dealt with recent historical events rather than with mythical or remote subjects. The choice of such subjects manifested the taste for concrete representation of reality in art which eventually became characteristic of Spanish literature. The earliest extant example of the art of the juglares is the anonymous epic Poema del Cid (c. 1140, Poem of the Cid), which tells of the adversities and triumphs of the Castilian leader known as El Cid. This work, a subtle masterpiece of narrative art exalting the virtues of courage, loyalty, and equanimity, is especially notable for the vividness with which the characters are drawn.

B.

13th and 14th Centuries

In the 13th century learned authors began to recast the lives of the saints, edifying legends, and more ancient stories, all of which were then current in Latin, into poems in Castilian. This poetic activity, known in Spanish literature as mester de clerecía, took place primarily in the monasteries and was characterized by a strict observance of metrical rules, which had been ignored in the art of the juglares. The best poet of the mester de clerecía was Gonzalo de Berceo, the earliest Spanish poet known by name, who recast pious stories into poems, giving them new fervour and freshness.

As a result of the efforts of King Alfonso X, Castile was one of the first European states to develop a literature in prose. A host of jurists, historians, translators, and specialists of various kinds worked under his supervision in a formidable attempt to compile the knowledge of their time. They drew from Islamic, Jewish, and Christian sources, the court of Castile having been at the time a meeting place for scholars of all three faiths. These collective endeavours stimulated a flow of Oriental culture into western Europe. Castilian prose, fashioned under Alfonso X into a useful means of expression, reached artistic maturity in the writings of Alfonso's nephew Don Juan Manuel, who produced the collection of moral tales El conde Lucanor (1328-1335, Count Lucanor). The first Spanish chivalric romance and first novel, El caballero Cifar (The Knight Cifar) appeared around 1305.

The poetry of Juan Ruiz, archpriest of Hita, ranks among the highest achievements in Spanish literature. His ideals and stylistic devices were primarily those of the Middle Ages, but he expressed his individuality to an extent more characteristic of Renaissance writers than those of the Middle Ages. His Libro de buen amor (1330, expanded 1343; Book of Good Love, 1968) is a collection of poems written in the form of a satirical autobiography and contains examples of almost every poetic form and theme of the Middle Ages. Like his contemporary the English poet Geoffrey Chaucer, he observes real life with a crafty sense of humour.

C.

15th Century

During the 15th century, Spanish literary production increased enormously. The outstanding poets of this period are Íñigio López de Mendoza, commonly known as the Marqués de Santillana; Juan de Mena; and above all Jorge Manrique, who in his Coplas a la muerte de du padre (Stanzas on the Death of His Father), an elegy, gave perfect expression to the Christian acceptance of death. At this time stories from the epic poems were combined in romanceros, collections of short ballad-like pieces that were sung with instrumental accompaniment. Contemporary events also were dealt with as the romancero assumed its final form after successive changes by various juglares.

Satirical and historical writing flourished during the 15th century. The Spanish monarchs Ferdinand V and Isabella I, during their joint reign (1474-1504), promoted the study of the humanities. The most noted scholar at the time was the grammarian and lexicographer Antonio de Nebrija or Lebrija, pen name of Elio Antonio Martínez de Jarava, who was the author of Gramática sobre la lengua Castellana (1492, Grammar of the Castilian Language). In this period also, the most celebrated and imitated Spanish novel of chivalry, Amadis of Gaul (1508), was given its present form. As a result of its influence many novels of chivalry in a similar style were published during the 16th century.

The Tragicomedia de Calisto y Melibea (1499, Tragicomedy of Calisto and Melibea), written by Fernando de Rojas and far more popularly known by the title La Celestina, is the second most important work in the total body of Spanish literature; first, of course, is the story of Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes (see below). La Celestina is a novel in dialogue combining elements of both narrative and drama. The literary sources of this work, which exerted considerable influence upon the development of literature in Spain, are Latin and medieval, but it expresses a concept of life diverging deeply from the religious spirit of the Middle Ages. Set against a background of realistically drawn underworld life in an unnamed Spanish city during the Renaissance, the story concerns two noble lovers, Calisto and Melibea, who resort to the services of a bawd named Celestina to further their love. The lives of these three characters become entangled inextricably and all three are brought to disaster. Never before had Spanish literature presented the tragedy of life with such insight into human nature and such mastery of the means of expression. The artistic maturity and diversity of style attained by the author of La Celestina were invaluable models for the authors of the Golden Age of Spanish literature, which began not long after the publication of this pioneering work.