II.

Land and Resources

The main area of Turkey, known as Anatolia, is in Asia between the Mediterranean and Black seas. Turkish Thrace in Europe makes up about 3 per cent of the country’s area. Turkey has relatively rich agricultural resources and significant deposits of coal, lignite, iron ore, and chrome; some oil is found in the south-east. With several active seismic zones within its boundaries, Turkey is subject to frequent earthquakes.

A.

Physiographical Regions

Turkey can be divided into seven geographical regions: Thrace and the borderlands of the Sea of Marmara; the Aegean and Mediterranean region; the Black Sea region; western Anatolia; the central Anatolian Plateau; the eastern highlands; and south-eastern Anatolia.

Thrace and the borderlands of the Sea of Marmara contain a central plain of gently rolling hills. It is a fertile, well-watered area of which slightly more than one quarter is farmed. The eastern portion of this region rises as high as 2,543 m (8,343 ft) at the summit of Mount Ulu (Olympus). The coastlands of the Aegean and Mediterranean region are narrow and hilly, and only about one fifth of the land is arable. To the east, much of Turkey’s cotton crop is grown in the Çukurova, a plain connected with the interior through the Taurus Mountains by a pass known since antiquity as the Cilician Gates (Külek Boğazı).

The Anatolian coastlands of the Black Sea region rise directly from the water to the heights of the Kuzey Anadolu Dağları (Northern Anatolian Mountains). Slopes are steep, and only about 16 per cent of this area is farmed. Western Anatolia consists of irregular ranges and interior valleys separating the Aegean coast from the central Anatolian Plateau; farming here is restricted to less than one fifth of the total area. The central Anatolian Plateau, the largest geographical region in Turkey, is surrounded on all sides by mountains. The highest point is the summit of Mount Erciyes (3,916 m/12,848 ft). Twenty-eight per cent of the region is cultivated.

The eastern highlands region is the most mountainous and rugged portion of Turkey; Mount Ararat (Agri Mountain) (Ağrı Dağı), mentioned in the Bible as the place where Noah’s ark came to rest, is the highest peak at 5,165 m (16,946 ft). Less than 10 per cent of this area is cultivated. The eastern highlands are the source for both the Tigris (Dicle) and Euphrates (Firat) rivers. South-eastern Anatolia is a rolling plateau enclosed on the north, east, and west by mountains. With about 19 per cent of its area farmed, south-eastern Anatolia is part of the so-called Fertile Crescent and has been important since antiquity.

B.

Rivers and Lakes

Almost all the rivers of Turkey contain rapids and are thus unsuitable for navigation. A number of rivers do not flow during the dry summer. Some rivers are, however, important sources of hydroelectric power and water for irrigation. The Kızıl (more than 1,100 km/700 mi long), which empties into the Black Sea, is the longest river flowing entirely within national boundaries. The Büyük Menderes (Latin Maeander) drains western Anatolia into the Aegean Sea; its many loops and bends have given rise to the term “meander” in English. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers flow from eastern Turkey to empty ultimately into the Persian Gulf.

Lake Van is Turkey’s largest lake; its waters are saline, as are those of another large body of water, Lake Tuz. Freshwater lakes include Beyşehir, Eğridir, and Burdur—all in the south-west.

C.

Climate

The Mediterranean and Aegean shores of Turkey experience long, hot summers and mild, rainy winters. İstanbul has an average January temperature of 5° C (41° F) and an average July temperature of 23° C (73° F). Average annual precipitation totals 820 mm (32 in). Olives, citrus fruit, figs, grapes, cotton, and early spring vegetables are raised. Scattered forests alternate with low herbaceous growth.

The central Anatolian Plateau has a continental climate with hot summers and colder winters than those along the shore. Ankara has an average January temperature of 0° C (32° F) and an average July temperature of 23° C (73° F). Average annual precipitation totals 350 mm (14 in). Along the Mediterranean and Aegean coasts, nearly half the yearly precipitation, which is about 710 mm (28 in) at İzmir, falls in December and January. The plateau receives only about half as much precipitation, but it is more evenly distributed over the course of the year. The eastern highlands experience even longer and colder winters. South-eastern Anatolia records the hottest summer temperatures in Turkey (averaging more than 30° C/86° F in July and August); grain-farming is dominant, with grazing in its drier portions.

D.

Plants and Animals

Grasslands and grain fields are abundant on the plateau, with sparse forests restricted to higher slopes. Pastoralism and grazing prevail in the eastern highlands. Some sparse forests are found, and alpine vegetation is common at higher elevations. Humid deciduous forests as well as a thick brush cover are found along the Black Sea. Higher elevations have forests similar to those in the eastern highlands.

Only wild boar, which are seldom hunted or killed by Muslims (the great majority of the population), remain abundant in the forests. Wolf, fox, wildcat, hyena, jackal, deer, bear, marten, and mountain goat inhabit more remote areas. The camel, water buffalo, and Angora goat have been domesticated. In addition to numerous local species of birds, including the wild goose, partridge, and quail, migrations of birds of prey—lesser spotted eagles, buzzards, hawks, kestrels, and falcons—pass down the Bosporus. Trout are abundant in the mountain streams, and bonito, mackerel, and bluefish are plentiful in the Turkish Straits. Anchovies are caught in the Black Sea.

E.

Natural Resources

In addition to good supplies of coal and iron ore, Turkey has a number of small but important mineral deposits, such as chrome ore near Guleman and Fethiye, high-grade magnetite ore at Divriği, and lead and zinc in scattered areas. Boron, copper, and silver are also mined, and oil occurs in relatively small quantities in the south-east.

F.

Environmental Concerns

About 11 per cent (1995) of the land is forested, and agricultural land makes up about 38 per cent (1997) of the country. Turkey’s protected area network consists of 21 national parks and 36 national forests as well as numerous nature reserves, special protection areas, and other designated sites totalling about 1.4 per cent (1997) of the land. Protected areas are jeopardized, however, by poor legal protection. Recreation and game breeding and hunting areas are relatively extensive. The expansion and modernization of agriculture represents a major environmental threat in Turkey. Pesticides and fertilizers frequently pollute waterways, and natural areas—especially wetlands—are used for cultivation and grazing ground. Other problems include extensive coastal development, the hunting of threatened and endangered species, and pressure on protected sites from increased tourism.

Growth in Turkey's industrial sector has given rise to air pollution in a number of cities, and industrial effluents are adding to river contamination. Turkey has ratified international environmental agreements on air pollution, hazardous wastes, nuclear test ban, ozone layer, ship pollution, wetlands, and whaling. Two natural areas have been declared World Heritage Sites. Regionally, Turkey is active in the conservation of the Mediterranean and Black Sea through participation in the Mediterranean Action Plan. In addition, three specially protected areas have been recognized under the Barcelona Convention. Under the Council of Europe (CE) protocol, three sites in Turkey have been designated as biogenetic reserves, and one site has been awarded the distinguished European Diploma. The country has a transborder park, shared with Greece.