II.

Land and Resources

Spain occupies about 85 per cent of the Iberian Peninsula and is bounded by water for about 88 per cent of its periphery; its Mediterranean coast is about 1,660 km (1,030 mi) long, and its Atlantic coast is about 710 km (440 mi) long. The long, unbroken mountain chain of the Pyrenees, extending about 435 km (270 mi) from the Bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean Sea, forms the border with France on the north; in the extreme south the Strait of Gibraltar, less than 13 km (8 mi) wide at its narrowest extent, separates Spain from Africa.

The most important topographical feature of Spain is the great, almost treeless, central plateau, called the Meseta, sloping generally downwards from north to south and from east to west, and with an average elevation of about 610 m (2,000 ft) above sea level. The tableland is divided into northern and southern sections by irregular mountain ranges, or sierras, of which the most important are the Sierra de Guadarrama, the Sierra de Gredos, and the Montes de Toledo. Between many of the mountains are narrow valleys, drained by rapid rivers. The coastal plain is narrow, rarely as much as 32 km (20 mi) wide and, in many areas, broken by mountains that descend to the sea to form rocky headlands, particularly along the Mediterranean coast, where the sole excellent harbour is Barcelona. The north-western coastal area has several good harbours, particularly along the Galician coast.

The six principal mountain chains have elevations ranging up to more than 3,350 m (11,000 ft). The highest peaks are the Aneto Peak (3,404 m/11,168 ft) in the Pyrenees, and Mulhacén (3,478 m/11,411 ft) in the Sierra Nevada in southern Spain. The highest point in Spain and its insular territories is Pico de Teide 3,718 m (12,198 ft) on Tenerife in the Canary Islands. The lowest point is sea level along the coast.

A.

Rivers and Lakes

The principal rivers of Spain flow west and south to the Atlantic Ocean, generally along deep, rocky courses through the mountain valleys. The Douro, Miño, Tagus, and Guadiana rivers rise in Spain and flow through Portugal to the Atlantic. The Guadalquivir, flowing through a fertile plain in the south, is the deepest river in Spain and the only one navigable for any extent. The Ebro, in north-east Spain, flows into the Mediterranean Sea, and is navigable by small craft for part of its course. Most Spanish streams are too small for interior navigation, and, with courses below the general ground level, are of little use for irrigation. The rivers are, however, a good source of power.

B.

Climate

The climate of Spain is mainly Mediterranean. It is marked by variations of temperature and, except in the north, generally insufficient rainfall. The variegated physical features of the country ensure pronounced climatic differences. The climate is most equable along the Biscayan and Atlantic coasts, which are generally damp and cool. The central plateau has summers so arid that nearly all the streams dry up, the earth parches, and drought is common.

Most of Spain receives less than 610 mm (24 in) of precipitation per year; the northern mountains get considerably more moisture. Around Madrid, winter cold is sufficient to freeze surrounding streams, while summer temperatures rise as high as 41.7° C (107° F). By contrast the southern Mediterranean coast has a sub-tropical climate. Málaga, in the extreme south, has an average winter temperature of 13.9° C (57° F).

C.

Natural Resources

The most valuable natural resource of Spain is the soil. The country also has many mineral resources, including coal, petroleum, cobalt, copper, iron ore, lead, lignite, manganese, mercury, potash, salt, silver, sulphur, tin, and zinc.

Although Spanish soils need careful irrigation and cultivation, they are a rich and valuable resource. Semi-arid chestnut-brown soils cover the central plateau, and red Mediterranean soils cover the southern area and the north-eastern coastal region. A grey desert soil, often saline, is found in the south-east. The forest of northern Spain has grey-brown forest soils, and the forest in the Cantabrian Mountains has leached podzolic soils.

D.

Plants and Animals

Only a small part of Spain is wooded, and forests are located mainly on mountain slopes, particularly in the north-west. A common Spanish tree is the evergreen oak. Cork oak, from which the bark may be stripped every ten years, is abundant, growing chiefly as second growth on timbered land. Poplar trees are grown throughout the country and the cultivation of olive trees is a major agricultural activity. Other Spanish trees include the elm, beech, and chestnut. Shrubs and herbs are the common natural vegetation on the central plateau. Grapevines flourish in the arid soil. Esparto grass, used for making paper and various fibre products, grows abundantly in both the wild and cultivated state. Sugar cane, oranges, lemons, figs, almonds, and chestnuts are grown on the Mediterranean coast.

The Spanish fauna includes the wolf, lynx, wildcat, fox, wild boar, wild goat, deer, and hare. Among the more famous domesticated animals are the bulls bred near Seville and Salamanca for bullfighting, the Spanish national sport. Birdlife is abundant, with varieties of birds of prey. Insect life abounds. Mountain streams and lakes teem with such fish as barbel, tench, and trout.

E.

Environmental Concerns

The mostly mountainous, semi-arid land of Spain is home to more than 5,000 species of plants. Forests cover 17 per cent (1995) of the country, although this figure includes plantations of pine and eucalyptus grown for soil stabilization and paper pulp. Farmland makes up about 53 per cent of the country. Protected areas in Spain include nine national parks, game reserves, and many smaller sites of special conservation status, representing a total of about 8.4 per cent (1997) of the land.

Spain faces numerous environmental threats. Deforestation and the erosion and river pollution that accompany it are major concerns. Other problems include the encroachment of agriculture on to land designated as protected, desertification in badly managed agricultural zones, and soil salinization in irrigated regions. Agricultural productivity has improved in recent years, but partly as a result of increased use of nitrogen fertilizers, which have in turn added to the problem of nitrates in rivers. Tourism, an important source of Spain’s income, also produces environmental stress. Badly planned developments threaten protected areas, and poor sewage- and water-treatment facilities cause serious pollution, especially on the Mediterranean coast during the summer months. In April 1998, a serious toxic waste spill occurred as the result of a burst reservoir at an iron ore mine in southern Spain. Attempts were made to divert the spillage from Doñana National Park, a World Heritage Site and important wetland area, towards the Guadalquivir River, which flows into the Atlantic Ocean. It was estimated that the toxic mud from the spill threatened millions of birds and other wildlife. The black toxic mud covered farms, fields, and orchards, causing farmers to suffer enormous economic losses.

Spain generates its power from hydroelectricity, coal, and nuclear energy. Nuclear plants supply more than one third of the country’s energy, although the government is committed to reducing the country’s dependence on nuclear energy by developing alternative power sources.

Spain participates in the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, with 17 sites designated, and in the World Heritage Convention, with two national parks recognized as World Heritage Sites. Fourteen biosphere reserves have been set aside under the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Man and the Biosphere Program. Spain has ratified international environmental agreements on air pollution, the Antarctic-Environmental Protocol and Antarctic Treaty, biodiversity, climate change, endangered species, environmental modification, hazardous wastes, marine dumping, marine life, nuclear test ban, ozone layer, ship pollution, tropical timber, and whaling. Regionally, Spain has designated several protected areas for wild birds as part of the European Wild Bird Directive and six protected marine sites under the Mediterranean Action Plan.