II.

Land and Resources

A horseshoe-shaped mountain complex and the valley of the Irrawaddy river system are the dominant topographical features of Myanmar. The mountains of the northern margin rise to 5,881 m (19,296 ft) atop Hkakabo Razi, the highest peak in south-eastern Asia. The two other mountain systems have north-south axes. The Arakan Range, with peaks reaching more than 2,700 m (9,000 ft), forms a barrier between Myanmar and the subcontinent of India. The Bilauktaung range, the southern extension of the Shan Plateau, lies along the boundary between south-western Thailand and south-eastern Lower Myanmar. The Shan Plateau, originating in China, has an average elevation of about 910 m (3,000 ft).

Generally narrow and elongated in the interior, the central lowlands attain a width of about 320 km (200 mi) across the Irrawaddy-Sittang delta. The deltaic plains, extremely fertile and economically the most important section of the country, cover an area of about 46,600 sq km (18,000 sq mi). Both the Arakan (in the north-west) and the Tenasserim (in the south-west) coasts of Myanmar are rocky and fringed with islands. The country has a number of excellent natural harbours.

A.

Climate

Most of Myanmar lies within the tropical zone. Myanmar has three seasons: a hot and wet season from mid-May to October, a cooler season from late October to mid-February, and a very hot season from mid-February to early May. During the hot-wet season, the period of the South-West Monsoon, rains usually fall every day and sometimes all day, bringing almost all the annual average of about 5,080 mm (200 in) of rain to Lower Myanmar and about 760 mm (30 in) to Upper Myanmar, while temperatures average around 29° C (85° F) in Mandalay and 27° C (80° F) in Rangoon. In the cooler season, January temperatures average around 20° C (68° F) in Mandalay and 25° C (77° F) in Rangoon. By the end of the hot season, average temperatures have risen to over 37.8° C (100° F) in many parts of Myanmar. Temperatures are generally lower in mountainous regions.

B.

Natural Resources

The most important resources of Myanmar are its soils and forests. Approximately 250 commercially useful kinds of trees are found, 50 of which have been exploited. The principal forest resource is teak, of which the country holds the majority of the world’s remaining supply. Important mineral deposits are oil and natural gas, along with lead, zinc, tin, tungsten, coal, iron ore, copper, and some marble and limestone. Myanmar is an outstanding source of jade and natural rubies.

The richest soils are found in a narrow alluvial strip along the Bay of Bengal, where mountain streams irrigate the land; in the wide river valleys; and in the alluvial deposits of the Irrawaddy delta and valley. These deep deposits form a vast, fertile belt especially suitable for rice cultivation because of the abundant moisture.

C.

Plants and Animals

Forests and woodland cover about half of Myanmar. In the regions of maximum precipitation, the dense tropical forests contain extensive stands of timber and oil-bearing trees, including commercially valuable teak forests. Other trees include rubber, cinchona, acacia, bamboo, ironwood, mangrove, coconut, betel palm, and, chiefly in the northern highlands, oak, pine, and many species of rhododendron. Tropical fruits such as citrus, bananas, mangoes, and guavas grow in the coastal regions. Vegetation in the arid regions is sparse and stunted.

Jungle animals such as the tiger and leopard are common. Among the larger native quadrupeds, found mainly in the highlands of Upper Myanmar, are the elephant, rhinoceros, wild buffalo, wild boar, and several species of deer and antelope. Elephants, tamed or bred in captivity, are used as work animals, particularly in the timber industry. Smaller quadrupeds include the gibbon, several species of monkey, the wildcat, the flying fox, and the tapir. Myanmar has over 1,200 known varieties of birds, including parrots, peafowl, pheasants, crows, and herons. Among typical reptiles are crocodiles, geckos, cobras, pythons, and turtles. Many edible species of freshwater fish are plentiful.

D.

Environmental Concerns

Although rich in natural resources, Myanmar is among the most impoverished countries in Asia. Only 60 per cent (1990-1998 estimate) of Myanmar's citizens have access to safe water, and only 43 per cent (1990-1998 estimate) are served by adequate sanitation systems. Water-borne infectious diseases are a significant health problem throughout Myanmar. Forests cover 41 per cent (1995) of Myanmar, but the country is suffering deforestation at a rate of 1.4 per cent (1990-1996) every year. Most of the world's remaining teak trees are in Myanmar. Teak wood is in high demand worldwide, and in the early 1990s the teak harvest greatly exceeded the sustainable yield. Forests are also being consumed for fuel, with firewood and other traditional fuels representing 64 per cent (1996) of the country's total energy consumption. Only 0.3 per cent (1997) of Myanmar's land is officially protected, although forest reserves extend over 14 per cent of the country. The country is inhabited by 98 (1996) threatened animal species. Myanmar has ratified international agreements on biodiversity, tropical forests, and the ozone layer. The country has also signed treaties limiting nuclear testing and marine pollution.