IV.

History

The Acropolis of Athens has been inhabited since Neolithic times. As early as 1400 bc it was fortified in the manner of Mycenae, Tiryns, and other late Bronze Age citadels. At that time and in the subsequent “dark age” (1200-900 bc) that followed the Dorian invasions, Athens was one of a number of petty states in Attica.

A.

The Early City-State

In the mid-9th century bc, the surrounding territory, including the seaport of Piraeus, was incorporated into the city-state of Athens. When the monarchy was replaced by an aristocracy of nobles, the ordinary citizens had few rights. The city was controlled by the Areopagus (Council of Elders), who appointed three (later nine) magistrates, or archons, who were responsible for the conduct of war, religion, and law. Discontent with this system led to an abortive attempt at dictatorship by Cylon (632 bc). Continued unrest led to Draco's harsh but definite legal code enacted in 621 bc. The code only compounded the social and economic crises, but eventually it brought about the consensus appointment of Solon as archon in 594 bc. Solon established a council (boule), a popular assembly (ekklesia), and law courts. He also encouraged trade, reformed the coinage, and invited foreign merchants to the city. His reforms, however, were only partially successful.

In 560 bc the tyrant Pisistratus, supported by the aristocracy, gained control of Athens. He enlarged the meeting place of Solon's council in the agora (marketplace) and built a new temple of Athena (the city's patron goddess) on the Acropolis. Pisistratus also sponsored public events such as the Panathenaic festival, held every fourth year in Athena's honour. Many other public works were undertaken by the tyrant and his sons between 560 and 510 bc. In 509 bc Cleisthenes led a democratic revolution, reorganizing the city's tribal structure so that the base of his support was in the more democratic urban centre and in Piraeus. The powerful popular assembly met on the Pnyx hill below the Acropolis.

B.

The Classical Period

In 480 bc Athens was sacked and nearly destroyed by the Persians. The Athenian leader Themistocles, having defeated the Persian invaders at Salamis, began the restoration of the city, building defensive walls around both Athens and Piraeus. He also began the construction of walls connecting Athens with the port. His work was continued by Pericles around 450 bc. Pericles, more than any other democratic leader, made Athens a great city. Public funds were used to build the Parthenon, the temple of Niké, the Erechtheum, and other great monuments. He developed the agora, which began to display goods imported from around the world. As head of the Delian League of Greek city-states, Athens was now an imperial power; its courts tried cases from all over the Aegean. The culture of the city was magnificent. Great tragedies and comedies were produced in the Theatre of Dionysus, below the Acropolis, and Pericles' circle included the leading intellectuals of the day. The city, with its democratic constitution and brilliant way of life, became the “school of Hellas”. At its height, the total population was perhaps 400,000-500,000, of whom 60,000 were men with full citizenship; the rest—women, foreigners, and slaves—were denied citizenship.

After its defeat by Sparta in the destructive Peloponnesian War (431-404 bc), the city began to decline. Socrates was forced to take his own life when he questioned traditional ideas, and an attitude of pessimism prevailed. Nevertheless, philosophy continued to flourish. In the 4th century bc Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum were founded as philosophical schools, and Demosthenes, Isocrates, and others developed rhetoric into a fine art.

C.

Foreign Domination

Although Athens virtually lost its independence to Macedonia in 338 bc, the town continued to be an important cultural centre. It fell to Rome in 146 bc but maintained good relations with the Romans until they sacked it in 86 bc, destroying many of Athens' monuments. Nonetheless, Athens remained a centre of learning for prominent Greeks and Romans from the 1st century bc until late antiquity. In the 3rd century ad it was damaged by invading Goths, who were only repelled with difficulty. In ad 529 the Christian emperor Justinian closed the pagan philosophical schools, virtually ending the city's classical tradition.

During the Byzantine period Athens was a cultural backwater. Many of the city's works of art were moved to Constantinople, and the temples became Christian churches. Byzantine emperors occasionally visited Athens, but the city was largely ignored and impoverished. After the Crusaders conquered Constantinople in 1204, Athens became a French feudal duchy. The Catalans took over the city in 1311, but they were expelled when a Florentine dynasty successfully installed itself in the late 14th century.

The Ottoman Turks gained complete control of Athens in 1458. The Parthenon, built as the chief temple of the goddess Athena, was then made into a Muslim mosque. Under Turkish rule the city was still administered by Greeks and had a mixed population of Turks, Greeks, and Slavs. The Parthenon was badly damaged in 1687, when a Venetian bombardment ignited gunpowder that had been stored inside the building.

D.

The Modern Period

The Greek War of Independence (1821-1833) liberated the city from the Turks and made it the capital of modern Greece. Athens was largely rebuilt during the reign (1832-1862) of Otto I by German architects, notably Eduard Schaubert. Before its emergence as a major European commercial and industrial city in the 20th century, it was important mainly as a tourist centre celebrated for its ancient monuments. The city now suffers from the typical modern problems of urban sprawl and air pollution. In an effort to preserve the ancient monuments, the International Committee for the Conservation of the Acropolis Monuments was established in 1975, and in 1987 the Acropolis complex was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In September 1999 an earthquake hit Athens, killing 139 people. Most of the casualties occurred in the city's northern suburbs, where government inspectors declared thousands of buildings unfit for habitation. Athens was chosen as host city for the 2004 Olympic Games. Major redevelopment took place in the city ahead of the Games. The government invested vast amounts of money on improving the transport network in and around the city, and impressive new sports stadiums, luxury hotels, and tourist facilities were built, transforming Athens into a modern metropolitan centre. The Games were a huge success, attracting more than 10,000 athletes and around 3.5 million spectators from all over the world.

Air pollution is a major problem for Athens today, caused by the large number of factories in the city, the dense population, and a lack of green spaces. The situation is made worse by the fact that the city is surrounded by hills, which trap the polluted air and prevent it from moving away. The high level of pollution not only affects the health of the people living there, but also causes damage to the city's ancient monuments. Environmental protection schemes, such as traffic bans, are in place in certain parts of Athens to try to prevent any further damage.