I.

Introduction

Chile, republic, south-western South America, bordered on the north by Peru, on the east by Bolivia and Argentina, and on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean. It has an extreme north-south length of approximately 4,270 km (2,650 mi), but its average width is less than 180 km (110 mi). Archipelagos extend along the southern Chilean coast from Chiloé Island to Cape Horn, the southernmost point of the South American continent. Among these are the Chonos Archipelago, Wellington Island, and the western portion of Tierra del Fuego. Other islands belonging to Chile include the Juan Fernández Islands, Easter Island, and Sala y Gómez, all of which lie in the South Pacific. The country has a total area of 756,626 sq km (292,135 sq mi). Chile also claims a section of Antarctica. The capital and largest city is Santiago.

II.

Land and Resources

The dominant physical feature of Chile is the Andes Mountain system, which extends the entire length of the country, from the Bolivian plateau in the north to Tierra del Fuego in the south.

A.

Physical Regions

Chile can be divided longitudinally into three topographical zones: the lofty Andean cordillera on the east; the low coastal mountains on the west; and the plateau area, which includes the Central Valley, between these ranges. Latitudinally, three major geographical and climatological regions can be distinguished: the northern (arid), central (Mediterranean), and southern (temperate marine) regions.

The ranges of the Andes are widest in the northern region, forming broad plateaux and containing many mountains with elevations in excess of 6,100 m (more than 20,000 ft). The country’s highest peak, Ojos del Salado (6,893 m/22,615 ft), is found there. The plateau area is occupied by the great Atacama Desert, which contains vast nitrate fields and rich mineral deposits.

In the central region the plateau gives way to a valley, known as the Central Valley, some 965 km (about 600 mi) long. The valley, which ranges from 40 to 80 km (25 to 50 mi) in width, is the most heavily populated area of the country. The fertile area between the Aconcagua and Bío-Bío rivers forms the agricultural heartland of Chile. The central Andes are narrower and lower than in the north. The most important passes in the Andes are located here as are the country’s finest natural harbours.

The southern region is without an interior valley; it disappears below the sea at Puerto Montt. The long chains of islands along the coast are formed by the peaks of the submerged coastal mountains. The coastline here is indented by numerous fiords. The southern Andes seldom exceed about 1,830 m (6,000 ft). Chile lies in a zone of geological instability and is subject to earthquakes and volcanic activity.

B.

Rivers and Lakes

The many rivers of Chile are relatively short, generally rising in the Andes and flowing west to the Pacific. In the northern and central regions the rivers are fed primarily by the perpetual snow cover of the Andes. The most important rivers (from north to south) are the Loa, Elqui, Aconcagua, Maipo, Maule, Bío-Bío, and Imperial. Although of limited value for navigation because of cascades, the rivers are vital for irrigation and hydroelectric power. Many of Chile’s major lakes, including Lake Llanquihue, are concentrated in the scenic lake district of the southern region.

C.

Climate

Because of its great latitudinal range, Chile has a diversity of climates. In general, temperatures are moderated by oceanic influences.

The northern region is almost entirely desert and is one of the driest areas in the world. Temperatures, however, are moderated by the offshore presence of the cold Peru, or Humboldt, Current. The average temperatures at Antofagasta and Santiago for January are 21° C (69° F) and 20° C (67° F), respectively. The average for July in Antofagasta is 14° C (57° F), and in Santiago it is 8° C (46° F). Temperatures decrease about 1° C for each 150 m (1° F for each 275 ft) of altitude in the Andes. Rainfall increases to the south, and the central region experiences a Mediterranean-like climate. Precipitation there is concentrated in the winter months (May to July) and ranges from an annual total of 375 mm (15 in) at Santiago to 12.7 mm (y in) at Antofagasta. Winters are mild, and summers are relatively cool. The southern region is cooler and experiences year-round rainfall. Precipitation reaches a maximum of about 5,080 mm (200 in) near the Strait of Magellan. The average annual temperature at Punta Arenas in the far south is 6.1° C (43° F). Strong winds and cyclonic storms are common in the southern region.

D.

Natural Resources

Chile is rich in mineral resources, chiefly because of the size of the deposits rather than because of the diversity of minerals. Copper is by far the most important mineral, but there are also nitrates, iron ore, limestone, coal, manganese, oil and natural gas, silver, and gold.

E.

Plants and Animals

The indigenous plant life of Chile varies according to climatic zone. The northern region has few varieties of vegetation (such as brambles and cacti) and is one of the Earth’s best examples of an absolute desert. The more humid Central Valley supports several species of cacti, espino (a thorny shrub), grasses, and the Chilean pine, which bears edible nuts. South of Valdivia are dense rainforests containing laurel, magnolia, false beech, and various species of conifers, but logging by foreign companies is the major environmental concern. In the extreme south, a steppe vegetation of grasses is found.

Animal life is less diversified than in other parts of South America because of the barrier to migration that the Andes presents. Indigenous mammals include llama, alpaca, vicuña, guanaco, puma, Andean wolf, huemal (a large deer), pudu (a small deer), and the chinchilla. Birdlife is varied, but most of the larger South American types are absent. Except for trout, which were introduced from North America, few freshwater fish inhabit Chilean streams and lakes. The coastal waters abound in fish and marine animals.

F.

Environmental Concerns

Chile is remarkable in that it spans 39 degrees of latitude and includes 83 distinct vegetation types. Its varied ecosystems include the Atacama Desert, ancient beech forests, and fiords and glaciers of the southern Andes. Nearly two-thirds of the population lives in the fertile region surrounding Santiago. This high concentration of people has led to severe environmental deterioration in this area. Many water systems are polluted with sewage, and urban air pollution is severe. Motor vehicle ownership has increased 10 per cent annually in recent years, prompting the government to establish a complex management plan with strict emission standards and a modernized public transport system.

Chile is approximately 10.5 per cent (1995) forested. Natural forests, especially temperate rainforests, are being harvested at a high rate, mostly in the south by foreign companies. The native trees are being replaced with extensive plantations, so the total forest cover is actually increasing, although at the expense of natural biodiversity. Soil erosion is widespread, and desertification in some areas is significant.

Chile is one of the largest marine-fishing nations in the world. The fishing industry has doubled in size since 1980 but harvests have declined in recent years because of unsustainable catch rates. Chile’s ocean salmon-netting techniques are thought to exclude dolphins from natural habitat, and fish farms have recently polluted inland waterways with phosphate-based fish food and antibiotics. Chile takes advantage of the rich ocean life supported by ocean upwelling off the west coast of South America, but this is interrupted every few years by the El Niño current, which brings unusually wet weather to the land.

Chile has an extensive protected area system made up of 30 national parks, 36 national reserves, and 10 natural monuments, but it excludes many important ecotypes, especially those of the central and northern regions. Overall, about 18.9 per cent (1997) of the country is protected. There is one designated wetland under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, and seven biosphere reserves under the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Man and the Biosphere Program. Chile’s natural hazards include frequent earthquakes, active volcanoes, and tsunamis. Through its ratification of the Western Hemisphere Convention (1940), Chile has pledged to protect its wildlife. The country has also ratified the Antarctic-Environmental Protocol and the Antarctic Treaty, as well as treaties on biodiversity, climate change, endangered species, environmental modification, hazardous wastes, marine dumping, nuclear testing, ozone layer, plant protection, and ship pollution. Regionally, Chile has joined with its neighbours in signing the Convention for the Conservation and Management of Vicuña. Transborder protected areas are shared with Argentina and Bolivia.

III.

Population

Compared with other South American countries, Chile has a population that is relatively homogeneous. The early Spanish settlers intermarried with the Native Americans, notably the Araucanian; their descendants, the mestizos, constitute more than 92 per cent of the current population. European immigration has not been as important in Chile as in other countries of the Americas; immigration was only mildly encouraged in the 19th century. German immigrants have, however, been an important influence in the Valdivia-Puerto Montt area. Italy, Austria, Switzerland, Great Britain, Yugoslavia, and France also made significant contributions to the population. Today less than 2 per cent of the country’s population is of unmixed European stock. Only 6 per cent of the population is pure Native American, mainly Araucanians who are concentrated in the southern region.

A.

Population Characteristics

The population of Chile is 16,601,707 (2009 estimate), giving the country an overall population density of about 22 people per sq km (about 57 per sq mi). Some 90 per cent of the population lives in the central region between Concepción and La Serena. About 88 per cent lives in urban centres, and more than one third of the country’s entire population lives in the capital city of Santiago. Communities both in the south and in the northern desert are generally isolated and separated by vast, virtually unpopulated stretches.

B.

Principal Cities

The major cities of Chile are Santiago, with an overall population of 5,477,804 (2003 estimate); Concepción, an agricultural and industrial centre, population 225,158 (2006 estimate); Valparaíso, the principal seaport, population 276,474 (2006 estimate); and Viña del Mar, a popular resort, population 292,203 (2006 estimate).

C.

Religion

Roman Catholics constitute about 78 per cent of the population of Chile, although the Church was officially disestablished in 1925. Most of the remaining population is Pentecostal Protestant or Jewish. Native Americans practising traditional religions constitute a very small minority.

D.

Language

Spanish is the official language of Chile and is spoken by virtually the entire population as a first or second language. Six Native American languages are spoken, the most notable being Mapudungun (400,000 speakers) and Huilliche (several thousand speakers). Rapa nui, an Austronesian language with 2,400 to 2,500 speakers, is spoken on Easter Island and by a few people on the mainland. Catalan and Standard German are also spoken.

E.

Education

Chile’s modern education system had its origins in the mid-19th century and is largely based on European models. Today, eight years of education is free and compulsory for all children between the ages of 6 and 14. The school system is administered by the national government under the minister of education. The national literacy rate of about 97 per cent (2007) is one of the highest in Latin America. In 2005 the government spent 16 per cent of total public spending on education.

In 2006, 1,694,765 students were enrolled in primary schools and 1,633,868 in secondary schools. A pre-school programme is also available. Among the institutions of higher education, the University of Chile (1738), a state-operated university in Santiago, is highly respected throughout the world. Other centres of higher learning include the University of Concepción (1919), the Catholic University of Chile (1888), the Catholic University of Valparaíso (1928), and several technical universities. Total enrolment in institutions of higher education in 2006 was 661,142.

F.

Culture

Two lively and contrasting cultural strains predominate in Chile: the cosmopolitan culture of the affluent urban population and the popular culture of the peasants, which is predominantly Spanish but contains traces of Araucanian heritage. The latter influences are strongest in Chilean music and dance. Chile has a flourishing literary tradition and has produced two Nobel Prize winners in literature, Gabriela Mistral and Pablo Neruda, both poets.

Chile’s most important cultural institutions are concentrated in the large cities of the central region. These institutions include the National Museum of Fine Arts, the National Historical Museum, and the National Museum of Natural History, all located in Santiago, and the Natural History Museum in Valparaíso. The country’s largest library is the National Library in Santiago, with about 3.5 million volumes.

IV.

Economy

The Chilean economy has, since the early 20th century, been dominated by the production of copper. Since the 1940s the industrial sector has expanded rapidly, largely due to government efforts at diversification. Today Chile is one of the leading industrial nations in Latin America as well as one of its largest mineral producers. In the 1970s efforts were made to boost the output of the neglected agricultural sector and to reduce the country’s dependence on imported food; after a slow-down in the production of major crops in the early 1980s, agricultural output improved later in the decade.

During the period of military rule from 1973, the government played a less dominant role in the economy, and most nationalized companies were returned to private ownership. Since the return to civilian government in 1990, spending on social welfare has increased, although exports, business investments, and consumer spending have also grown. Gross national product (GNP) in 2004 totalled US$84,160 million, giving a per capita income of about US$8,190 (World Bank figures). In 2007 national budget figures included US$45,044 million in revenue and US$28,326 million in expenditure. Chile’s foreign debt in 1995 stood at US$21,100 million.

A.

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing

About 13 per cent of the labour force of Chile is engaged in agriculture, and farm products accounted for approximately 8 per cent of the gross domestic product (GDP) in 1994. Except for sheep-raising, conducted in the far south, the bulk of Chile’s agricultural activity is concentrated in the Central Valley. Only about 7 per cent of Chile’s land area is currently under cultivation.

The leading crops are wheat, potatoes, sugar beet, corn, rice, tomatoes, and oats. Fruit crops are important and include grapes, melons, apples, peaches, apricots, plums, and cherries. The country also has an important wine-making industry. Sheep are raised in large numbers in Tierra del Fuego and the Magallanes pampas. Flocks in the country as a whole comprised about 3.4 million head in 2007. Annual wool output is about 29,000 tonnes. Other livestock include 4.3 million cattle, 3.5 million pigs, and 690,000 horses.

Forests cover about 22 per cent of Chile’s land area. Some 21.4 million cu m (about 756 million cu ft) of timber was cut annually in the mid-1990s. Output consists of both hardwoods (such as laurel) and softwoods (such as pine). Timber, pulp, and paper are made from the annual wood harvest. Targeted for investment since the mid-1970s, the forestry industry accounted for more than 10 per cent of annual exports by the mid-1990s.

Chile has one of the largest fishing industries in South America. An annual catch of about 5.3 million tonnes was taken in the country’s rich fishing waters in 2007. Principal species include sardine, mackerel, anchovy, and lobster. Processing plants pack much of the fish catch for distribution.

B.

Mining

Chile has some of the world’s largest-known copper deposits and is one of the world’s leading producers. Copper is the leading export, accounting for about 40 per cent of all annual exports by value. About 5.4 million tonnes were produced annually in 2004. Oil and natural gas (first discovered in 1945) are extracted on Tierra del Fuego and in the Strait of Magellan. Some 732,000 tonnes of crude oil and 4,424 million cu m (156.2 billion cu ft) of natural gas are produced annually. Iron ore, with an annual production of about 5.2 million tonnes, is the country’s other leading mineral product. Chile also has large deposits of nitrates, iodine, sulphur, and coal, as well as silver, gold, manganese, and molybdenum.

C.

Manufacturing

The manufacturing sector contributes about 16 per cent of Chile’s annual national output and employs about 16 per cent of the work force. Manufacturing is largely based on the refining and processing of the country’s mineral, agricultural, and forestry resources. Chile is a major South American producer of steel. Copper is also refined, and the several oil refineries use both domestic and imported petroleum. Other important manufactures include cement, pulp and paper products, food products, textiles (cotton, wool, and synthetics), tobacco products, glass, chemicals, refined sugar, and electronic equipment. Car assembly is also important. The bulk of the country’s manufacturing industry is located in or near Santiago and Valparaíso. Concepción is the other major industrial centre.

D.

Energy

The electricity-generating plants in Chile have a total capacity of about 4 million kW and produced some 26,742 million kWh of electricity in 1995. The fast-flowing rivers that descend from the Andes and the coastal ranges are potentially rich sources of hydroelectric power. Major efforts have been made to harness this potential, and by 2006 some 56 per cent of Chile’s electricity was generated as hydroelectricity.

E.

Currency and Banking

The monetary unit of Chile is the peso of 100 centavos (649.35 pesos equalled US$1; early 2009). The peso was introduced in 1975 to replace the Chilean escudo. The autonomous Central Bank of Chile (Banco Central de Chile; 1926) is the bank of issue and has broad powers to regulate monetary policy. Other banks include a state bank and a number of commercial and development banks.

F.

Commerce and Trade

Total annual exports were worth US$68,296 million in 2007. Metals and mineral ores constituted around half of this total. Other important exports included fruits and vegetables, meat and fish products, wood pulp, paper products, and chemicals. In the same year imports totalled US$46,966 million. The principal imports were machinery and transport equipment, sugar and other food products, electric equipment, and chemicals. Chile’s chief trading partners included the United States, Germany, Japan, Taiwan, the United Kingdom, Argentina, and Brazil.

G.

Transport

Chile has a network of about 79,604 km (49,464 mi) of roads, of which about 20 per cent are paved. Railway lines total about 8,100 km (5,000 mi) in length and are confined to the northern two thirds of the country. The main north-south system is connected by spur lines to important coastal towns and by trans-Andean lines to points in Argentina and Bolivia. There is a ratio of 136 motor vehicles per 1,000 people. Because of the difficult terrain, many coastal cities rely on water transport. Fine harbours are few, however. The principal ports are Valparaíso, Talcahuano, and Tomé (the latter two both located on Concepción Bay), Antofagasta, San Antonio, Arica, Iquique, Coquimbo, San Vicente, Puerto Montt, and Punta Arenas. The most important international airport in the country is located near Santiago; others are at Arica, Antofagasta, Puerto Montt, and Punta Arenas. The largest carrier is Linea Aérea Nacional Chile.

H.

Communications

Chile has a wide variety of modern communications media, and there are 59 daily newspapers (2004). El Mercurio, La Nación, and La Tercera, De La Hora, all published in Santiago, have considerable influence. Television, introduced in 1958, is operated by a national government network and several independent stations. The country has about 170 radio stations, and approximately 3.7 million televisions, 5 million radios, and 1.5 million telephones.

V.

Government

The government of Chile was based on the constitution of 1925 until a coup d’état in 1973. Although it remained nominally in effect, most of the constitution’s provisions guaranteeing popular democracy and due process were suspended. A new constitution was approved in 1980; its major provisions were not fully implemented until 1989, however.

A.

Executive and Legislature

The 1980 constitution vests executive power in a president, popularly elected for a four-year term (a 2005 amendment), which is not renewable, and a Cabinet that is appointed by the president. Military leaders continued to control the government until 1989, when the first popular elections for president were held. In 2006 the country voted for its first woman president.

In accordance with the 1980 constitution, Chilean voters in 1989 elected a bicameral national congress. Today, the chamber of deputies consists of 120 members, each elected for a four-year term, and the senate comprises 48 members (38 elected, each for an eight-year term, 9 appointed, and 1 life president). Voting is compulsory for citizens aged 18 or over.

B.

Political Parties

All political activity was suspended after the 1973 coup and banned outright in 1977. Political parties were again legalized in 1987. The major political parties in the early 21st century were the Christian Democratic Party (Partido Demócrata Cristiano), the Socialist Party of Chile (Partido Socialista de Chile), the Party for Democracy (Partido por la Democracia), the authoritarian-conservative National Renovation Party (Renovación Nacional), and the Independent Democratic Union (Unión Demócrata Independiente). These parties form coalitions and in effect there is a “two-coalition system” at work in the country. The first three mentioned parties above form the major part of the Coalition of Parties for Democracy (Concertación de Partidos Por la Democracia), the latter two are the dominant partners in the Alliance for Chile (Alianza Por Chile).

C.

Judiciary

The highest judicial body in Chile is the Supreme Court, which has 21 judges. The country also has 17 courts of appeal. Judges are appointed for life by the president from a list submitted by the supreme court judges.

D.

Local Government

For the purpose of local administration, Chile is divided into 13 regions (including the Greater Santiago metropolitan area), which are subdivided into 51 provinces. The governors, who preside over the regions, and the officials who govern the provinces are appointed by the president. Provinces are further divided into municipalities.

E.

Health and Welfare

Social welfare legislation was first enacted in the 1920s, and by the early 1970s the country’s welfare programme ranked as one of the most extensive in the world. After the 1973 coup much of the welfare structure was cut back. The majority of the population, however, receives free medical care under the National Health Service. In 2004 there was one doctor for every 916 people, and in 2009 the infant mortality rate was estimated at 7.7 deaths per 1,000 births. Workers may be insured to receive old-age pensions, unemployment benefits, disability expenses, and other benefits. In 1990 the government spent 4.73 per cent of GDP on health care.

F.

Defence

Military service of one year in the army or two years in the air force and navy is compulsory in Chile for all 18- and 19-year-old men. The country’s military force of 75,698 in 2006 was distributed as follows: 47,700 in the army, 19,398 in the navy, and 8,600 in the air force.

G.

International Organizations

Chile is a member of the United Nations (UN), the Organization of American States (OAS), the World Trade Organization (WTO), and the Latin American Integration Association (LAIA).

VI.

History

Most of Chile south of the Rapel River was first dominated by the Araucanians, a Native American people remarkable for its fighting ability. The Native Americans occupying the northern portions of Chile had been subjugated during the 15th century by the Incas of Peru. The region was then known to its native population as Tchili, a Native American word meaning “snow”. The first European to visit what is now Chile was the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, who landed at Chiloé Island following his voyage, in 1520, through the strait that now bears his name. In 1535, after the Spanish under Francisco Pizarro had completed their conquest of Peru, Diego de Almagro, one of Pizarro’s aides, led a gold-hunting expedition from that country overland into Chile. The expedition spent nearly three fruitless years in the country and then withdrew to Peru.

A.

Spanish Settlement

Pedro de Valdivia, another of Pizarro’s officers, led a second expedition into southern Chile in 1540. Despite fierce resistance from the Araucanians, Valdivia succeeded in establishing several settlements, including Santiago in 1541, Concepción in 1550, and Valdivia in 1552. In 1553, however, the Araucanians organized a successful uprising, killing Valdivia and many of his followers and devastating all the towns except Concepción and La Serena. The rebellion was the initial phase of warfare that lasted nearly a century. The Araucanians were the only important Native American people who did not quickly succumb to Spanish attack. Strife continued intermittently during and after the Spanish colonial period and did not end until late in the 19th century.

In the Spanish colonial organization, Chile was originally a dependency of the viceroyalty of Peru and later had its own government. The country developed slowly, because it had no important silver or gold deposits to attract the Spanish. Moreover, it was far from the main centres of Spanish colonization in Peru and was difficult to reach. Farming in the Central Valley was the chief occupation, and Chile supplied Peru with foodstuffs, especially wheat. The townspeople lived by trade.

B.

Independence from Spain

In 1810 Chile joined other Spanish colonies in breaking political ties with Spain. On September 18 of that year, celebrated thereafter as the Chilean independence day, the Santiago town council deposed the colonial governor of Chile, delegating his powers to a council of seven. Although this act marked the formal establishment of Chilean independence from Spain, intermittent warfare against Spanish troops, dispatched from Peru, continued for more than 15 years. A royalist army was decisively defeated at Chacabuco on February 12, 1817, ending Spanish control of northern Chile. One year later Bernardo O’Higgins, one of the revolutionary leaders, proclaimed the absolute independence of Chile. Nevertheless, royalist forces controlled nearly all of southern Chile until 1818, and were not completely expelled from the country until 1826.

C.

Conservative Period

O’Higgins, who had been named Director-General of Chile in 1818, ruled the country with dictatorial powers until 1823, when popular hostility to his regime forced his resignation. A liberal constitution, establishing a republican form of government, was then adopted, but political strife among numerous organizations contending for power kept Chile in turmoil until 1830. In that year conservative elements, headed by General Joaquín Prieto, overthrew the government. In 1831 Prieto became president, but the leading person in the government was Diego Portales, who filled various Cabinet posts during Prieto’s administration. A new constitution, vesting immense powers in the executive department of the government, was adopted in 1833. Abortive armed attempts to remove the Conservatives from power were made by liberal groups in 1835, 1851, and 1859.

Despite its authoritarian character, the Conservative Party government fostered domestic policies that contributed substantially to the commercial and agricultural development of Chile. Steps were taken to exploit mineral resources, railways were constructed, and immigration was encouraged. A school system and cultural institutions were established. The chief development in Chilean foreign relations during this period of Conservative dominance was a series of conflicts with neighbouring countries—first with Bolivia and Peru in 1836, and then with Argentina, beginning in 1843. Armed hostilities with Argentina were narrowly averted on several occasions over the ownership of Tierra del Fuego. Eventually in 1881 a treaty was signed, granting half of Tierra del Fuego to Chile.

D.

Liberal Rule and Foreign Wars

Divisions resulting from disagreements with the Roman Catholic Church had taken place, meanwhile, within the Conservative Party. Beginning in 1861 its liberal wing, in coalition with the Liberal Party, instituted a number of constitutional reforms including prohibition of consecutive presidential terms. Endeavours to promote public welfare and the further development of national resources were intensified, notably by new railway and highway projects and the creation of a postal system. In 1865 Chile became embroiled in a Spanish-Peruvian war that continued sporadically until 1869.

Chilean interests subsequently began the exploitation of the immensely valuable nitrate deposits in the Atacama Desert. Rejecting Bolivian claims to the region, the Chilean government in February 1879 ordered its military forces into the Bolivian port of Antofagasta. Two months later Peru, an ally of Bolivia, declared war on Chile, precipitating the War of the Pacific. As a result of its victory in this conflict, terminated in 1883, Chile acquired considerable territory including the province of Antofagasta from Bolivia and the province of Tarapacá from Peru. Peru also yielded Tacna and Arica to Chile, on condition that after ten years a plebiscite be held. Although the two countries failed to agree on conditions for a plebiscite, disposition of the disputed areas was achieved in 1928 by negotiation, Tacna becoming a possession of Peru and Arica going to Chile. See Tacna-Arica Dispute.

E.

Civil War and Natural Disaster

In 1891 political forces closely allied with the Roman Catholic clergy organized a revolt against the administration of President José Manuel Balmaceda, a Liberal Party leader. Under the leadership of Captain Jorge Montt, a naval officer, the rebels, who termed themselves Congressionalists, seized the Chilean fleet and the rich nitrate provinces in the north. In August they defeated a government army near Valparaíso. This city fell to the rebels, as did Santiago, virtually ending the war. More than 10,000 lives had been lost and considerable property destroyed. Balmaceda committed suicide in September. Shortly thereafter Montt became president, and Chile entered an extended period of peaceful reconstruction. As a concession to liberal sentiment in the country, Montt instituted several reforms, which strengthened democratic processes within the government. The following years were marked by increasing participation of the Chilean people in politics and by mounting political turbulence.

In August 1906 a disastrous earthquake virtually destroyed Valparaíso and extensively damaged Santiago, killing more than 3,000 people and leaving about 100,000 homeless. The damaged areas were rapidly rebuilt, however.

F.

The World Wars

Chile was neutral in World War I. After the war, great strife developed in the country between liberal and conservative elements. The Liberals gained power with the election in 1920 of the former minister of the interior, Arturo Alessandri Palma, but he was unable to carry out reforms. In 1924 a military coup d’état drove Alessandri from office and established a military dictatorship which itself was overthrown early in 1925 in another military coup. A new constitution reformed the electoral system, reduced the power of the congress, and established the separation of Church and State. Alessandri was restored to the presidency, but his term lasted for less than a year. Under the next president, Emiliano Figueroa, governmental authority was actually wielded by an army officer, Carlos Ibáñez del Campo, who ruled as the president from 1927 until 1931. Following additional coups and changes of administration, Alessandri was elected president again in 1932 and served until the end of his term in 1938.

In the election of 1938 a liberal government, with Radical Party member Pedro Aguirre Cerda as president, was elected by a coalition of democratic groups united in a popular front. His ambitious New Deal programme was disrupted by a devastating earthquake that occurred in 1939, killing about 30,000 people. This coalition was successful again in 1942, when Radical Party member Juan Antonio Ríos was elected president, governing moderately amid the political tensions engendered by pro-Allies and pro-Axis elements during World War II. Ríos led his country into a pro-Allies position, declaring war in 1944. During the war the Communist Party emerged as one of the strongest political organizations in Chile. The country became a charter member of the UN in June 1945.

G.

Post-War Governments (1946-1970)

The 1946 presidential election was won by Gabriel González Videla, the Radical Party leader, who was supported by a left-wing coalition consisting mainly of the Radical and Communist parties. González Videla appointed three Communists to his Cabinet, but the coalition endured for less than six months. The Communists, frequently at loggerheads with others of the government, were removed from the Cabinet in April 1947. Later in the year diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union were severed. In 1948 hundreds of Communists were incarcerated under the Law for the Defence of Democracy, which outlawed the Communist Party. A military revolt led by former president Ibáñez was suppressed. Manifestations of social unrest were frequent during the following years; in 1951 strikes occurred in almost every sector of the economy.

A popular reaction against the traditional parties resulted in the election of General Ibáñez the following year. He restored some order but did not effectively cope with the economic and social problems. In 1958 Jorge Alessandri Rodríguez, a former senator and son of Arturo Alessandri Palma, heading a Conservative-Liberal coalition, was elected to the presidency on a platform favouring free enterprise and the encouragement of foreign investment. In response to strong opposition from the newly legalized Communist Party and the newly formed Christian Democratic Party, he proposed a ten-year plan that included tax reforms, building projects, and agrarian reform. He broke off diplomatic relations with Cuba in 1964 but resumed ties with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). In 1960 a series of tidal waves and earthquakes struck the country, causing widespread damage and killing thousands.

The presidential election of 1964 was won by former Senate member Eduardo Frei Montalva of the centrist Christian Democratic Party. Frei’s major reforms, such as partial government ownership of the copper industry, aroused dissatisfaction in both leftist and conservative elements that resulted in violent political opposition.

H.

The Allende Regime

As the presidential election of 1970 approached, the left-of-centre parties united to form a Popular Unity coalition; it nominated Salvador Allende Gossens, who waged his campaign on a platform that promised full nationalization of all basic industries, banks, and communications. He received about 37 per cent of the votes, and Congress backed him overwhelmingly against his rightist opponent, former president Alessandri. Allende became the first president elected on a Marxist-Leninist programme in a non-Communist country of the western hemisphere.

Once installed in the presidency, Allende quickly began to implement his campaign promises, turning the country towards socialism. State control of the economy was instituted, mineral resources, foreign banks, and monopolistic enterprises nationalized, and land reform accelerated. In addition, Allende initiated a redistribution of income, raised wages, and controlled prices. Opposition to his programme, however, was strong from the beginning, and by 1972 the result was seen in severe economic problems and a sharply polarized citizenry. The situation grew still more critical in 1973, when rapidly increasing prices, food shortages (caused by the reduction of foreign credits), strikes, and political violence brought Chile to the brink of chaos. The crisis was aggravated by the United States, which worked to undermine the Allende regime. The climax came on September 11, 1973, when the military forces seized power; in the process, President Allende was killed.

I.

Pinochet Government

The military ruled through a junta headed by General Augusto Pinochet Ugarte. It immediately suspended the constitution, dissolved Congress, imposed strict censorship, and banned all political parties. In addition, it embarked on a campaign of terror against its opponents. Thousands were arrested; many were executed, tortured, or exiled, while still others languished in prison or simply disappeared.

For the next few years the junta retained its iron grip on the country, although some token relaxation could be seen towards the end of the decade. The state of siege was lifted in 1978 (although a state of emergency remained in effect), and more civilians were added to the Cabinet. Chile, however, remained a police state. A new constitution, accepted by a referendum on the seventh anniversary of the military coup, legalized the regime until 1989, and Pinochet began another eight-year term as president in March 1981.

Economically, the Pinochet government, with its austere controls, slashed inflation and stimulated production between 1977 and 1981. Starting in 1982, however, the worldwide recession and declining copper prices led to a downturn in the Chilean economy. There were large-scale protests against the government in 1983, followed by a wave of bombings in major cities. Rising popular unrest and continued economic deterioration led Pinochet to reimpose a state of siege in November 1984. A treaty signed with Argentina later that month ratified Chile’s claim to three islands in the Beagle Channel. After an unsuccessful attempt on Pinochet’s life in September 1986, he launched new repressive measures.

J.

Civilian Rule Restored

The state of emergency was finally lifted in August 1988, and in October Chileans were permitted to hold a plebiscite on whether Pinochet’s term, due to expire in March 1989, should be extended to 1997. When nearly 55 per cent of the electorate voted against the proposal, Pinochet’s term was automatically extended to March 1990, pending free presidental and legislative elections. In December 1989, in Chile’s first presidential election in 19 years, voters chose the Christian Democratic candidate, Patricio Aylwin Azócar. Aylwin initiated modest economic reforms and appointed a commission to investigate human rights violations by the Pinochet regime. Economic reforms initiated by Aylwin brought 1 million Chileans out of poverty during his term. In the 1993 presidential elections Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, son of Eduardo Frei Montalva, defeated Arturo Alessandri (son of the former president). Chile planned to seek membership of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) in 1994 and has made a formal application to join the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). In 1998 Pinochet retired from his post as commander-in-chief of the armed forces to take up his position as senator for life.

In October 1998 Pinochet was arrested in Britain at the request of the Spanish judiciary, seeking to put him on trial for murder, torture, and genocide of Spanish citizens. His arrest was upheld in a ruling by the British House of Lords in March 1999, but the number of crimes for which he might be extradited was reduced. This judgement was followed in April by a decision of the British Home Secretary to allow the extradition to proceed. Soon after, Chilean authorities said that they would seek international arbitration to settle the disputed question of whether Britain, Spain, or Chile had the jurisdiction to consider the case against Pinochet. Extradition proceedings in the case were opened in September, and a ruling the following month stated that his extradition to Spain could go ahead. However, as part of an appeal against this decision, the British Home Office ordered a medical examination of the general in December, which revealed that he was too ill to stand trial. Four European countries fought through the courts to gain access to the medical report, and then appealed against the Home Office's decision, but Pinochet was allowed to return to Chile in March 2000.

In December 1998, Argentina and Chile signed a treaty ending their last border dispute in the Andes mountains, establishing a frontier in a region known as the Campos de Hielo Ice Fields. The death of the last surviving member of the aboriginal Ona people of western Tierra del Fuego was announced in June 1999. Political pronouncements in November included the settlement of the last border dispute with Peru, which dated from the War of the Pacific, and the government's intention to remove landmines from the regions bordering Argentina, Bolivia, and Peru.

Ricardo Lagos of the ruling socialist Coalition of Parties for Democracy (CPD) won the presidential elections in January 2000. He narrowly beat the right-wing Alliance candidate in the first run-off election in Chilean history, gaining just over 51 per cent of the vote, and was the first socialist to be elected in the country since 1970.

Attempts to bring General Pinochet to trial continued after his return to Chile, resulting first of all in his being stripped of constitutional immunity to prosecution in August 2000. Appeals by Pinochet’s lawyers against court proceedings on physical and mental health grounds failed, and in January 2001 he was questioned by a senior judge about his knowledge of human rights abuses when he was in power. The judge decided to charge Pinochet with specific instances of kidnapping and murder carried out in 1973, and Pinochet was put under house arrest. The appeals continued, and in March the charges against him were reduced before the proceedings were suspended in July after reports that Pinochet was suffering from dementia. In July 2002 the charges against him were dropped, on the grounds that he was mentally unfit. At this time Pinochet also resigned as lifelong senator. The government decided in August 2003 to provide compensation to those who had been tortured under Pinochet’s regime and encouraged members of the military to come forward and make statements about the atrocities. By 2004, Pinochet had once more been stripped of his immunity from prosecution and the following year was placed under house arrest pending a trial.

In legislative elections to the Chamber of Deputies, held in December 2001, the ruling coalition, the CPD, won nearly 48 per cent of the vote and 62 seats. The Alliance for Chile coalition won 57 seats. In March 2004 the Chilean Congress decided to legalize divorce, leaving just the Philippines and Malta as the two remaining countries to outlaw the practice. Further elections to the Chamber of Deputies in December 2005 saw the CPD increase its margin slightly with 65 seats, the Alliance slipping slightly with 54. At the presidential election held in December 2005/January 2006 the victorious candidate was Michelle Bachelet of the CPD. She won 53.49 per cent of the vote in the run-off. Bachelet was previously defence minister. The poll was notable in securing Chile’s highest political office for a woman for the first time. Bachelet’s father opposed the Pinochet regime and died in imprisonment.