II.

Historical Development

Sea power has helped shape history since ancient times. Organized naval forces first made an appearance in the Mediterranean, where over the course of many centuries Egypt, Phoenicia, Persia, Greece, and Carthage maintained navies. Although basically a land power, Rome built a fleet during the Punic Wars (264-146 bc), and Roman sea power helped bring about the ultimate destruction of Carthage. Their earliest warships were galleys, vessels propelled by banks of oars augmented by sail. The principal weapon with which they were equipped was a pointed beak, or ram, used to pierce the side of an enemy vessel. This was supplemented by archers and swordsmen who attempted to capture an enemy vessel by boarding it.

In the 7th century ad, the Byzantines developed Greek fire, an incendiary substance that was catapulted at enemy ships to set them ablaze. Although the galley was usually confined to protected waters, the Vikings used oared longships to swoop down on unwary targets along the Atlantic coast of Europe.

A.

Defence of Sea Routes

The age of exploration and nationalism that began in the 15th century coincided with the development of larger and handier sailing ships, as well as with the invention of gunpowder and instruments for navigation that enabled sailors to venture out of sight of land. The discovery of sea routes to India, China, and the Americas in the 15th and 16th centuries led to a growing volume of trade, and national rivalries for control of these routes created the need for navies.

Until the end of the 18th century, Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, France, and Britain were almost permanently engaged in maritime wars to win mastery of the seas and control of the vital trade routes that linked their overseas colonies to the parent country. Great Britain emerged victorious from this struggle and, following the defeat of the combined fleets of France and Spain off Cape Trafalgar in 1805 during the Napoleonic Wars, remained unchallenged for more than a century.

B.

From Sail to Steam

Throughout the great maritime wars, into the second half of the 19th century, wooden fighting ships became larger and more heavily armed, some carrying as many as 120 guns. An established ranking of professional naval officers from midshipman to admiral was created. Regular government agencies such as admiralties and navy departments were also organized to administer the increasingly complex affairs of these navies.

The Industrial Revolution of the 19th century completely changed the fighting ship. Steam replaced sail as the means of propulsion; iron and later steel replaced the wooden hull; and long-range, breech-loading rifled cannon replaced the muzzle-loading smoothbore gun. The invention of the mine, the torpedo, and the submarine also revolutionized warfare at sea.