II.

Land and Resources

There are three main topographical regions: the coastal plain, the sierra, and the montaña.

The coastal plain is an arid, elongated stretch of land extending the entire length of the country and varying in width from about 65 to 160 km (40 to 100 mi). The plain has most of the cities and industries of Peru, but few adequate harbours. A number of rivers flow through the region to the Pacific.

Parallel to and lying east of the coastal plain is the sierra, an upland region with the towering mountain ranges of the Andes, lofty plateaux, and deep gorges and valleys. The main mountain range is the Cordillera Occidental; other ranges include the Cordillera Oriental, the Cordillera Central, and a number of lesser chains. The sierra, which covers some 30 per cent of Peru, traverses the country from south-east to north-west and varies in width from about 400 km (250 mi) in the south to about 240 km (150 mi) in the north; the average height is about 3,660 m (12,000 ft). Several of the highest peaks in the world are located in the various sierran cordilleras and plateaux, notably Huascarán (6,768 m/22,205 ft), the highest in Peru. Lake Titicaca is in the south-east. Earthquakes occur in the sierra.

In the north-east the sierra slopes down to a vast tropical plain, the selvas, which extends to the Brazilian border and forms part of the Amazon Basin. The forested sierran slopes and a somewhat less elevated region are collectively designated the montaña. The montaña attains a maximum width of about 965 km (600 mi) in the north and constitutes some 60 per cent of Peru; it is covered with thick tropical forests in the west and with dense tropical vegetation in the centre and east. As a result, the region remains largely unexplored and undeveloped.

A.

Rivers and Lakes

Peru has three main drainage systems. One comprises about 50 torrential streams that rise in the sierra and descend steeply to the coastal plain. The second comprises the tributaries of the Amazon River in the montaña region. In the third the principal feature is Lake Titicaca, which drains into Lake Poopó in Bolivia through the Desaguadero River.

The Napo, Tigre, and Pastaza rivers rise in Ecuador and flow into Peru. The last two streams are tributaries of the Marañón River, and the Napo empties into the Amazon River. The border between Peru and Colombia is delineated by the Putumayo River.

B.

Climate

The climate of Peru varies widely, ranging from tropical in the montaña to arctic in the highest mountains of the Andes.

In the coastal plain the temperature is normally equable, averaging about 20° C (68° F) throughout the year. The coastal climate is moderated by winds blowing from the cool offshore current known as the Peru, or Humboldt, Current. The coast receives less than 51 mm (2 in) of precipitation each year, largely because the cordilleras receive most of the rain carried by the trade winds from the east. Mist-laden clouds known as garúa shroud many of the slopes of the sierra from June to October, providing enough moisture to support grasslands.

In the sierra the temperature ranges seasonally from about -7° to 21° C (20° to 70° F). Rainfall is usually scanty, but in some localities heavy rains fall from October to April. In Cuzco, in the south-eastern sierra, annual rainfall averages some 810 mm (32 in).

The montaña region is extremely hot and humid, although at higher altitudes it is less so. The prevailing easterlies blowing across the region gather moisture that is later deposited on the eastern Andean slopes. Annual rainfall in some districts averages as much as 3,810 mm (150 in). Most of this rain, which principally falls from November to April, eventually drains back to the montaña.

C.

Natural Resources

Mineral deposits, the primary resources of Peru, include oil found on the north-western coast and in the Amazon Basin; copper in north-western Peru; and substantial deposits of silver, iron ore, gold, lead, and zinc throughout the cordilleras. Also important are the forests, especially the stands of cedar, oak, and mahogany.

D.

Plants and Animals

The plant life of the three main geographical regions varies widely. The dry, sandy coastal plain supports mainly desert vegetation such as shrubs, grasses, and tuberous plants. In contrast, the vast, fertile montaña contains a rich profusion of trees, plants, and jungle vines, including mahogany, cedar, rubber, and cinchona trees, sarsaparilla and vanilla plants, and a variety of exotic tropical flowers. Deforestation, as in many South American countries, is causing environmental concern. The rugged sierra supports a relatively sparse plant life. Sierra vegetation is largely xerophytic—that is, adapted to survival on a restricted supply of water. Such growths include mesquite, cactus, scrub and fodder grasses, and eucalyptus plants.

The wildlife of Peru is limited in number and variety. The coastal plain and offshore islands support gulls and terns and some albatrosses, but little other wildlife except lizards, insects, tarantulas, and scorpions. Peruvian ocean waters abound in anchovy, pilchard, haddock, sole, mackerel, smelt, flounder, lobster, shrimp, and other marine species, but overfishing has depleted the number of certain species, such as anchovy, and dolphins have been caught in drift nets. In the sierra are found llama, alpaca, vicuña, chinchilla, and guanaco. Birds of the region include the giant condor, robin, phoebe, flycatcher, finch, partridge, duck, and goose. Lake Titicaca and other lakes and rivers in the sierra teem with fish. Animals of the tropical montaña include the jaguar, cougar, armadillo, peccary, tapir, anteater, several dozen species of monkey, alligator, turtle, and a variety of snakes and insects; among the birds are the parrot, the flamingo, and other tropical species.

E.

Environmental Concerns

Peru’s biodiversity is tremendous: the country contains over three-quarters of all the types of life zones found on Earth. Human impact on the environment is severe in places, however, and some key habitats are endangered—particularly the tropical and temperate coastal deserts and the puña, a type of high-elevation grassland. The spectacled bear, the giant otter, and the jaguar are just three species of Peru’s vast fauna that are considered threatened.

The rapidly growing population of Peru is unevenly distributed, concentrated in the mountains and in coastal areas. Water pollution and air pollution are pervasive in urban areas. Human health is a major concern, and access to safe water and basic facilities is poor in rural areas. The country sustains the highest rates of cholera found anywhere in the world, with more than 500,000 cases reported in 1993.

National parks and other reserves cover more than 10 per cent of the land, although only 2.7 per cent (1997) is strictly protected. Three national parks are designated as World Heritage Sites, and three biosphere reserves have been declared under the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Man and the Biosphere Program. New environmental laws dictate the economic integration of protected areas with local communities, providing for limited sustainable resource use in place of earlier policies that encouraged aggressive industrial development in the Amazon Basin. The spread of agriculture, especially the widespread cultivation of coca, is a major threat to fragile protected environments. Coca plantations are frequently hacked out of delicate vegetation and treated with fertilizers and pesticides that ultimately contaminate streams. Soil erosion is also widespread due to intensive cultivation and livestock overgrazing. Desertification is consuming significant amounts of once-productive land.

Peru has ratified international conservation agreements concerning Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, the Antarctic Treaty, biodiversity, climate change, desertification, endangered species, hazardous wastes, nuclear test ban, ozone layer, ship pollution, tropical timber, and wetlands. Regionally, Peru participates in several international agreements on conservation and sustainable land use in the Amazon Basin.