I.

Introduction

Armenia, republic in the Transcaucasia region of western Asia, bordered by Georgia to the north, Azerbaijan to the east, Turkey to the west and south, and Iran to the south. The Azerbaijani enclave of Naxçıvan also forms part of its southern boundary. Formerly a republic of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), Armenia is an extremely mountainous country with a limited amount of arable land. Population is concentrated in river valleys, especially along the River Hrazdan, where Yerevan, the capital and largest city, is located.

II.

Land and Resources

Armenia occupies about 29,800 sq km (11,500 sq mi) of the north-eastern portion of the Armenian Highland, an extensive upland area that extends as far south as Lake Van in Turkey. Armenia is characterized by high elevations and is extremely mountainous. Its average elevation is about 1,800 m (5,900 ft). Mount Aragats is the highest point in the republic, with an elevation of 4,090 m (about 13,420 ft). Mountain ranges in the republic include the P’ambaki, Geghama, Vardenis, and Zangezur branches of the Lesser Caucasus (Malyy Kavkaz) mountain system.

A.

Rivers and Lakes

Armenia is covered by a dense network of small rivers and streams that are part of the Aras-Kura river basin. Due to the mountainous terrain, waterfalls and rapids are frequent. The republic contains numerous mountain lakes, the largest being Lake Sevan, which holds more than 90 per cent of all standing water in Armenia.

B.

Climate

Armenia’s climate is characteristically continental, with wide temperature variations. Yerevan has an average January temperature of -3° C (26.6° F), and warm summers, with average August temperatures of 25° C (77° F). The Armenian plateaux have a moderating effect on temperatures. Rainfall varies greatly by location and elevation, with the greatest precipitation occurring on mountain slopes. The most arid region of the country is found along the River Aras, where average annual precipitation is less than 300 mm (12 in) per year.

C.

Natural Resources

There are few natural resources currently exploited, but there is small-scale extraction of copper, gold, silver, molybdenum, and iron ore. Deposits of mineral salt, calcium oxide, and carbon remain to be exploited on a large scale, and a joint-venture deal has been signed to develop gold processing facilities in Ararat.

D.

Plants and Animals

Climate, soil, and vegetation vary greatly throughout Armenia, which contains twice as many soil types as European Russia. Vegetation typical of alpine, semi-desert, and steppe regions dominates much of the republic, although the extreme south-eastern and north-eastern portions contain forests of beech and oak. The republic’s fauna includes wild boar, jackal, lynx, and Syrian bear.

E.

Environmental Concerns

Armenia's environment became severely polluted while the region was part of the USSR. The government long ignored the environmental harm caused by these industries, leaving a legacy of air and soil pollution. Contamination of water supplies with oil derivatives, chloride, nitrates, heavy metals, and other pollutants affected domestic supplies and supplies for agriculture. In the 1980s, liberalizing political reforms in the USSR, the public outcry over the Chernobyl accident, and severe air pollution in Yerevan resulted in the formation of environmental groups in Armenia. These groups began to express concerns about the state of the environment, and as a result of the pressure exerted by them, several factories in Armenia that were sources of severe pollution were closed, beginning in 1989. One of these factories, a rubber and chemical plant in Nairit, reopened in 1992 because Armenia needed the income generated by exporting the plant's products.

Although national environmental laws have been put into effect in Armenia since independence, no comprehensive environmental protection programme has emerged, and environmental initiatives are typically addressed on an ad-hoc basis. Nonetheless, the government has designated 7.6 per cent (1997) of Armenia's total land area as protected and has ratified international environmental agreements pertaining to air pollution, biodiversity, climate change, desertification, nuclear test ban, and wetlands.

In an attempt to offset a six-year energy crisis caused by blockades by Azerbaijan and Turkey, the Armenian government reactivated a nuclear power plant at Metsamor in mid-1995. The plant had closed in 1988 after a catastrophic earthquake in northern Armenia. Environmental groups opposed the reopening because the plant poses an environmental threat. Although it is in an earthquake-prone area, the plant was not built to withstand earthquakes.

III.

Population

The population of Armenia, estimated at 2,968,586 (2008 estimate), is characterized by a high degree of ethnic homogeneity. Armenians constitute more than 90 per cent of the republic’s population, a proportion that increased considerably in recent years with the departure of Azerbaijanis and the influx of Armenian refugees from the Nagorno-Karabakh territory of Azerbaijan, because of the conflict in that region. Kurds and Russians are the next two most populous ethnic groups in the republic, but they each comprise only about 1.5 per cent of Armenia’s total population. Small numbers of Ukrainians, Georgians, and Greeks also live in the republic. Life expectancy in 2008 was 72 years.

A.

Population Characteristics

The overall population density of Armenia was estimated to be 105 people per sq km (271 per sq mi) in 2008. The urban population is approximately 64 per cent of the total, with the population of Yerevan, the capital city, accounting for more than 50 per cent of the total urban population. Large numbers of Armenians have emigrated; it has been estimated that there are 1.5 million Armenians in the former Soviet republics and 2.5 million in the United States of America. Life expectancy in 2008 was estimated to be 69 years for males and 77 for females.

B.

Political Divisions

For administrative purposes, the Republic is divided into ten provinces: Aragatsotn; Ararat; Armavir; Gegharkunik; Kotaik; Lori; Shirak; Siunik; Tavush; Vayots Dzor; and the city of Yerevan, which is considered a province.

C.

Principal Cities

The largest city is Yerevan, which has a population of 1,079,000 (2003 estimate). The next most populous city, Gyumri (formerly Leninakan, also known as Kumari), is about one tenth the size of Yerevan, with a population of 210,100 (2001 estimate).

D.

Religion

The vast majority of the population is Christian. The Armenian Apostolic (Orthodox) Church is the most popular among Armenians. Russian Orthodoxy and Shiite Islam are also practised. The Armenian diaspora numbers some 5 million people, including 1.5 million in the former Soviet Union states, 2.5 million in the United States, and 400,000 in France. See Armenian Church.

E.

Language

The official language of Armenia is Armenian, an Indo-European language with many dialects (and a unique 38-letter alphabet), spoken by the majority of the population. North Azerbaijani, an Altaic language, is a mother tongue for around 161,000 and is used in some schools. Kurmanji (an Indo-Iranian language), Assyrian Neo-Aramaic (a Semitic language), and Lomavren (an Indo-European language from the Armenian sub-group) are also spoken by some.

F.

Education

Education is obligatory and free of charge at primary and secondary level. The system traditionally reflected Soviet influences in placing great importance on science and technology, but by the mid-1990s greater stress was placed on Armenian culture and history. In 2000 some 155,423 pupils attended primary schools and 389,131 pupils attended secondary schools, while 73,603 students were enrolled in higher education. Although primary and secondary education is free, higher education is becoming increasingly subject to fees, and by mid-1997, 75 of the 90 institutions of higher education were private. In 2002–2003 expenditure on education amounted to 3.1 per cent of gross national product (GNP).

G.

Culture

The ancient Kingdom of Van or Urartu was the foundation on which Armenian civilization began in the 6th century bc, and the kingdom was notable for its ornamental glass, ceramics, jewellery, and arms, in particular its production of bronze objects. Armenia’s literary legacy is also ancient, with written literature dating from the 5th century ad, and a tradition of Christianity as a state religion dating from the 4th century ad. Its position between East and West and a role in the development of Indo-European languages has ensured a rich literary heritage. St Gregory of Narekatzi (951-1001), renowned author of hymns and mystical poems, is considered to be the first great Armenian poet, and the author of one of the most widely read works in Armenia. Love poetry became common in Armenia, and during the 16th and 18th centuries it was performed by popular bards. One of the greatest exponents of the form was Sayat Nova (died 1795), who composed his songs of courtly love in Armenian, Azeri, and Georgian. The 19th century saw the dawn of modern Armenian literature, with Khatchatour Abovian (1804-1848) being one of the first authors to adopt modern Armenian for his writing. There are state theatres of opera and ballet, several theatres and orchestras, and a national dance company.

IV.

Economy

Armenia is highly industrialized. Industry comprised 44 per cent of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) in 2006, and some 17 per cent of the labour force was employed in industry. The GNP was US$3,205 million in 2004, or US$1,920 per capita. Industrial production is dominated by manufacturing and mining, including gold, copper, zinc, and silver. Electrical engines, machine tools, and chemical products, such as synthetic rubber, comprise the chief manufactured goods. Manufacturing output in the mid-1990s was adversely affected by energy shortages, lack of spare parts, and dependence on imported raw materials, but production has begun to increase in some areas. Inward foreign investment has been limited, but plans have been announced to seek investment and management, by tender from the private sector, for an important part of the copper industry.

A.

Agriculture

Agriculture is the largest sector of the Armenian economy, producing about one quarter of the country’s GDP in 1991 and 20 per cent in 2006. It employs 46 per cent of the total labour force. Principal crops include wheat, potatoes, tobacco, vegetables, grapes, and other fruits. Agriculture is highly dependent on irrigation, especially in areas near the Aras in the republic’s south. Local food production does not satisfy domestic needs, however, so Armenia must import large quantities of food from abroad. During the Soviet period, Armenia imported about 60 per cent of its bread and nearly two thirds of its dairy products from other republics. The economic blockade by Azerbaijan and the civil war in Georgia caused food supplies to greatly diminish, but in contrast to industrial production, agricultural output increased considerably in the early 1990s. The increase in domestic food production was caused in part by the privatization of land holdings, which began in 1991, and resulted in the transfer of 80 per cent of land and more than 85 per cent of collective farms into the private sector.

B.

Mining

Deposits of copper, zinc, bauxite, lead, molybdenum, marble, basalt, and granite are exploited on a small scale, and salt and gypsum are also mined. In 1991 production of gypsum was 172,000 tonnes and 103,000 tonnes of unrefined salt were produced. A joint-venture deal relating to gold mining has been agreed with a Canadian company on the development of a US$12 million processing plant in Ararat.

C.

Manufacturing

Prior to independence most production was in the light industrial sector, with some heavy industry associated with the metallurgical and chemical industries. There was also a large defence industry during the Soviet era. The economic crisis led to a substantial fall in manufacturing output, and many enterprises engaged in the defence industry have moved into different fields. Armenia has not benefited from a great deal of foreign investment, largely due to its location and the unsettled politics of the region.

D.

Energy

The industrial sector suffered greatly from the economic blockade imposed by Azerbaijan in 1991, which resulted in severe shortages of natural gas, oil, and other energy sources. In 1994 Armenian officials announced their decision to restart the power plant at Metsamor, the only nuclear power station in the Transcaucasia region, in order to compensate for the diminished energy supply. The plant had been shut down after northern Armenia suffered a devastating earthquake in 1988, although it was not damaged. The government of Azerbaijan protested against the announcement that the plant would be reopened, because of the possibility that it would be used to produce nuclear weapons. The Metsamor nuclear plant reopened in 1995, in spite of safety fears, and in the first six months of 1996 it was responsible for an increase of almost 40 per cent in the country's nuclear-generated electricity. Potential sites for commercial extraction of oil and gas were identified in the late 1990s.

E.

Currency and Banking

After the breakup of the USSR, Armenia continued to use the Russian rouble as its currency. Beginning in mid-1993, however, the Central Bank of Russia refused to accept roubles printed before that year. This action caused a massive inflow of roubles to Armenia and other former Soviet republics where the rouble was still allowed to circulate. Inflation accelerated greatly as a result of the influx of old roubles, which were worthless in Russia. The Central Bank of Russia demanded strict control of the new rouble, prompting Armenian leaders to issue a separate currency, called the dram, in November 1993. The dram was originally issued at a rate of 200 roubles per dram (311.14 drams equalled US$1; early 2008). The bank of issue is the Central Bank of Armenia.

F.

Commerce and Trade

Trade with the former Soviet Union used to play an important part in the economy, and Armenia enjoyed a trade surplus until 1987, since when it has been in deficit. The trade blockade imposed by Turkey and Azerbaijan since the dispute over Nagorno-Karabakh has hampered the economy. By 1997 the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) accounted for 40 per cent of exports, and was the origin of some 33 per cent of imports. Other trade partners include Belgium, Iran, and the United States. Leading exports include precious and semi-precious stones, precious metals, base metals, and machinery; food products and mineral products are leading imports.

G.

Labour

In 2006 the labour force numbered some 1,283,107, of which 46 per cent were employed in agriculture, 17 per cent in industry and construction, and 38 per cent in the services sector.

H.

Transport

There are approximately 7,633 km (4,743 mi) of road, of which 100 per cent is paved. It was estimated that 40 per cent of the roads were in need of repair in the late 1990s, and a US$35 million project to build 1,420 km (882 mi) of new roads, has received support from multilateral creditors. Rail links between Iran, Turkey, and Russia via Georgia are slow, and the United Nations funded the construction of a rail bridge between Tbilisi and Yerevan that opened in 1996. There are direct air communications with several destinations in Europe; the government considers air transport an important priority, and proposes to equip the national carrier, Air Armenia, with modern aircraft. There is an international airport at Yerevan (Zvartnots).

I.

Communications

The telecommunications system is outdated and unreliable; there were 193 telephones per 1,000 people in 2004. International calls are connected using better quality switching equipment and satellite access. Newspaper circulation and the number of titles produced have been affected both by the adverse economic climate and through closures by a government sensitive to criticism. Many newspapers are published by political parties or groupings. Ownership of televisions was estimated at 860,000 in 2000. Television broadcasting is subject to a state monopoly, although there is one radio station in the private sector. The state broadcaster is National TV and Radio of Armenia. Russian television programming can also be received in the country.

V.

Government

The Republic’s independence was declared in September 1991, and a new Constitution that replaced the amended Soviet Constitution of 1978 was approved by a national referendum in July 1995. A wide range of rights, freedoms, and duties concerning the citizen are included in the Constitution.

A.

Executive and Legislature

Executive power is vested in the president, who is head of state and supreme commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The president is directly elected for a term of four years and may only serve two consecutive terms in office. Legislative power is vested in a unicameral National Assembly; the 131-seat assembly (Azgayin Joghov) is elected for terms of four years by universal suffrage, all citizens who have attained the age of 18 years being eligible to vote.

B.

Political Parties

The main political parties represented in the Azgayin Joghov are the Republican Party of Armenia (HHK; Hayastani Hanrapetakan Kusaktsutyun); Prosperous Armenia (Bargavadj Hayastani Kusaktsutyun); the centrist Rule of Law Country (OE; Orinants Erkir); Justice (A; Ardarutyun); the social-democratic Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnak; Hai Heghapokhakan Dashnaktsutyun); and Heritage (Zharangutiun).

C.

Judiciary

Justice is administered in the republic by tribunal courts in the first instance, review courts, and the Court of Appeal. In addition to these, economic and military courts and a Constitutional Court are part of the justice system. Of the Constitutional Court’s nine members, five are appointed by the National Assembly and four by the President. Independence of the judiciary is guaranteed by the president, who as head of the Council of Justice appoints its 14 members. In January 1999, the Court of Appeal replaced the Supreme Court in criminal-military and civil-economic matters. The different structures were part of a series of reforms to the legal system.

D.

Local Government

Governors of the ten provinces, and the city of Yerevan, which is considered a province for administrative purposes, are appointed by the government. Urban and rural districts within the provinces have locally elected self-government.

E.

Health and Welfare

Healthcare before independence was hospital-centred and expensive; post-independence it was poorly funded and in need of reform. In 1995 foreign humanitarian aid during a ten-month period exceeded the total annual budgetary allocation for healthcare. Measures were introduced in 1996 to decentralize healthcare and to introduce participation by the private sector. In 2006 there were 270 people to each doctor, and infant mortality in 2008 was 21 deaths per 1,000 live births. Expenditure on healthcare in the mid-1990s was some 1.5 per cent of GDP.

F.

Defence

Armenia is part of the collective security system of the CIS and has established its own armed forces numbering 48,160 in 2004, including paramilitary forces and command staff. The military force includes some 33,100 conscripts with a term of service of 18 months; some mobilization of reserves was reported in 1997. In 2003 Armenia spent US$700 million (6.4 per cent of its GDP) on defence.

G.

International Organizations

Armenia is a member of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Pact (BSECP), the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the Council of Europe, the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO), the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), the Partnership for Peace (PFP), the United Nations (UN), and the World Trade Organization (WTO).

VI.

History

Armenia is one of the earliest sites of human civilization. It is considered by some specialists to be one of the first areas of iron- and bronze-smelting, and some cereal grains, such as rye, may also have been first domesticated there. For most of its history, Armenia was controlled or occupied by external powers, including Assyrians, Persians, Romans, Mongols, Turks, and Russians. Independent Armenian states existed for short periods of time in the past, the most extensive of which existed under the Armenian King Tigranes the Great. Under Tigranes, Armenian-controlled territory stretched from the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean and parts of modern-day Syria. This period of independence ended in 69 bc with the invasion of the Romans. Armenia later became the first Christian state in ad 301.

A.

Invasion by Foreign Powers

Armenia has suffered from extremely harsh treatment by foreign powers several times during its history. The invasion of the Seljuk Turks in the 11th century resulted in the first large-scale emigration of Armenians. Other periods of emigration followed, especially during the late 19th century, when Armenians were persecuted by Ottoman and Russian governments for agitating for political reforms. Armenians were massacred on a large scale by Ottoman forces. The Russian government, although not as repressive as the Ottoman government, closed Armenian schools and ordered the confiscation of Church property. The worst atrocities against Armenians occurred in the Ottoman Empire during World War I, when widespread deportations and massacres eliminated nine-tenths of the Armenians in Anatolia (present-day Asian Turkey). The Ottoman government accused the Armenians of being pro-Russian and cited the threat of internal rebellion as justification for these measures. Hundreds of thousands of Armenians were uprooted from their homelands in Anatolia and exiled to the deserts of present-day Syria. Many Armenians perished from starvation and disease or were killed by soldiers or civilians during the forced marches. Although the Russian government and the European powers protested against the Ottoman atrocities, they did not intervene. By the time World War I came to an end, more than 800,000 Armenians had died. The massacres continued into the early 1920s, and many Armenians fled to other countries, including Russia and the United States. According to most historians, the Ottoman treatment of the empire's Armenian subjects constituted the first genocide of the 20th century. However, the present-day government of Turkey disputes the characterization of these events as genocide, arguing that the deaths were the result of civil war, disease, and famine.

B.

Independence

B.1.

Short-lived Independent State

In 1918, Armenia declared itself an independent state after the short-lived Transcaucasian Federation with Georgia and Azerbaijan collapsed. In 1922 Armenia was incorporated into the USSR as part of the Transcaucasian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. In 1936 Armenia became a separate Soviet Socialist Republic within the USSR.

B.2.

Emergence of the Post-Soviet Republic

In the late 1980s popular unrest demonstrated the desire for Armenian independence, despite half a century of Soviet rule. Under Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev, Armenians took advantage of the policy of glasnost (Russian for “openness”) to publicly decry the state of the environment and rally for the annexation of Nagorno-Karabakh, an Armenian enclave in Azerbaijan. In 1989 the Armenian Supreme Soviet declared the enclave part of Armenia and proclaimed the sovereignty of the republic of Armenia. In September 1991 Armenian residents voted overwhelmingly to secede from the USSR, and the Supreme Soviet declared Armenia a sovereign, independent state in the same month. In October 1991 Levon Ter-Petrosyan, formerly chairman of the Armenian Supreme Soviet, became the first popularly elected president of the new republic. Armenia became a member of the UN in 1992.

B.3.

Political and Ethnic Tensions

Political tension in the country increased sharply in the first years after Armenian independence. Difficulties presented by the aftermath of the 1988 earthquake, the war with Azerbaijan over the disputed region of Nagorno-Karabakh, and the economic blockade of Armenia by Azerbaijan, resulted in an increase in political opposition to the government. The ruling party, the Armenian Nationalist Movement, which promoted a moderate programme of economic reform and territorial delimitation, was challenged by a wide array of political parties. The foremost was the Dashnak Revolutionary Federation, which had been in existence for more than a century and was the ruling party during Armenia’s brief period of independence from 1918 to 1922. The Dashnak, which exerted a great degree of control over Armenian military forces in Nagorno-Karabakh, rejected economic market reforms and advocated closer ties with Russia. Because of political pressure from Dashnak and other opposition groups, Kosrov Arutyunyan was forced to resign as prime minister, and an interim prime minister, Grant Bagratyan, was appointed in 1993. In 1993 Armenian forces defeated the Azerbaijani army in several confrontations, which led to Armenian control of Nagorno-Karabakh and adjacent areas.

Some of the advances made by the Armenians were reversed in December 1993, when Azeri forces launched a counter-offensive, and a ceasefire was negotiated in May 1994. Continuing economic problems resulted in the announcement of an austerity programme in November 1994. A worsening internal security situation led the government to implement measures to combat terrorism, including the suspension of the leading opposition party (ARF), which was charged with assassination, terrorism, and involvement in drug trafficking. Two rounds of the first post-Soviet legislative elections and a referendum on a new constitution took place in July 1995. The nationalist group took 119 of the 190 seats (the 131-seat National Assembly followed when the new constitution came into force). In February 1996 the IMF approved a US$148 million three-year loan to support economic reforms during 1996-1998. The incumbent president, Levon Ter-Petrosyan, was returned for a second five-year term, with over 50 per cent of the vote, in September 1996, and the result attracted accusations of vote-rigging from opposition parties and led to demonstrations in Yerevan. In October the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) reported on its observation of the elections, and noted that it had reason to “cast doubt on [their] validity”. In November, Bagratyan resigned and was replaced by Armen Sarkissian; a major Cabinet reshuffle followed.

In March 1997 Sarkissian resigned on health grounds and his successor Robert Kocharyan was appointed by President Ter-Petrosyan two weeks later. Kocharyan was president of Nagorno-Karabakh and his appointment was seen as a move to ease tensions in Armenia. A proposal in June to initiate conscription, prompted the Speaker of the National Assembly, Babken Ararktysan, to tender his resignation. He resumed his post after President Ter-Petrosyan announced that further discussion on conscription would be postponed, and, if approved, the law would not become effective until 1998. During a visit to Russia in August, Ter-Petrosyan signed a treaty of friendship and reached agreement on the export of natural gas from Russia to Turkey via a pipeline through Armenia. Ter-Petrosyan suggested in the autumn that Armenia be more flexible in its approach to the question of Nagorno-Karabakh, by adopting the plan put forward by the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). Ter-Petrosyan was forced to resign in February 1998 by dissenters, among them Prime Minister Kocharyan, who were unhappy with his policy plan.

B.4.

Kocharyan as President

In the presidential run-off election in late March, Kocharyan was elected with almost 60 per cent of the vote, and Armen Darbinian, who was previously the finance minister, was appointed prime minister in early April. Following ratification of legislation to legalize the Dashnak party (the Armenian Revolutionary Party), President Kocharyan appointed two members of the ARF to his administration in May. In the same month Kocharyan announced the establishment of a commission on the constitution that was expected to recommend a reduction in the powers of the president; the constitutional amendments would be subject to a referendum. In July it was announced that the Supreme Court was to be disbanded and replaced by a Court of Appeals that would be divided into civil-economic and criminal-military divisions; this restructuring was part of a number of reforms to the legal system that were expected to become effective during 1999. The elections in June saw a clear victory for the Unity (or Misanutiun) bloc, a coalition between defence minister Vazgen Sarkisyan and ex-Communist leader Karen Demichyan winning over 43 per cent of the vote. Sarkisyan became the new prime minister, while Demichyan was elected Speaker; however, both were killed along with six other politicians when a number of gunmen broke into the Armenian parliament building in Yerevan in October. The gunmen were led by Naini Unanyan, who claimed to represent the Armenian Revolutionary Federation of Dashnak. Unanyan claimed that his actions were to draw attention to the corruption of individuals in the government at a time of worsening conditions for the people of Armenia. Aram Sarkisyan was appointed the new prime minister.

B.5.

Internal Consolidation and Increased International Importance

The Armenian Cabinet was restructured in February 2000, and the number of ministries reduced from 24 to 17. New appointees were endorsed by President Kocharyan later that month. Nevertheless, in May the president dismissed his prime minister and the entire Cabinet stepped down. The chairman of the Republican Party of Armenia, Andranik Markaryan, was appointed premier and formed a new government.

In the third parliamentary election since Nagorno-Karabakh declared its independence, voters in the enclave went to the polls in June 2000. The elections were not recognized by Armenia or by any other country or organization.

Armenia’s position on the international arena was strengthened when the country’s application to join the Council of Europe was accepted in November 2000. This came after Armenia had received financial aid and loans for a total amount of about US$350 million. Both the donors and the Council of Europe encouraged the Armenian government to speed up reforms, particularly in areas such as education, social services, and health care, as well as privatization. In the latter part of 2000, ethnic Armenians around the world renewed their appeals to the international community to recognize what they termed Turkish atrocities and genocide committed at the start of the 20th century.

In 2001 Armenia celebrated the 1,700th anniversary of the acceptance of Christianity, with the Armenian Orthodox Church playing an influential role in politics and social life; in September, Pope John Paul II visited the country to mark the anniversary. There were also further developments in Armenia’s defence strategy. In March, new initiatives designed to resolve the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict were formulated by France and Turkey, and negotiations continued throughout the year. In May, following a meeting of CIS leaders in Yerevan, Armenia joined the Collective Rapid Reaction Forces (CRRF), a new 3,000-strong multinational body founded to provide greater military security in Central Asia, which started operating in August. The internal situation remained tense, however, with rising levels of poverty and alleged corruption, sporadic political killings, and the People’s Party of Armenia threatening to withdraw from the ruling coalition in September, all contributing to continuing political and social instability.

B.6.

Kocharyan’s Re-Election

Kocharyan was re-elected as president in March 2003 after failing to win in the first round of voting. He gained just over 50 per cent of the vote in the run-off, coming up against a strong showing from Stepan Demirchyan, son of the assassinated former Speaker, Karen Demirchyan. However, election observers claimed there had been vote rigging. Parliamentary elections in May were held to coincide with a referendum on constitutional reform, ostensibly supported by Kocharyan. The People’s Party of Armenia was returned to power, but the constitutional reforms failed to achieve the required support. A coalition government was formed between the Republican Party of Armenia, the centrist Rule of Law Country, and the social-democratic Armenian Revolutionary Federation.

In December 2003 six people were sentenced to life imprisonment for their involvement in the shooting of the prime minister, speaker, and other members of the parliament in 1999. In March 2007 the prime minister, Andranik Markaryan, died suddenly and was replaced by Serzh Sarkisyan. Elections followed in May and Sarkisyan’s Republican Party of Armenia won nearly 33 per cent of the vote. Sarkisyan stood for the presidency the following February and secured 52 per cent of the vote, thus obviating a second round of voting. However his main opponent, former president Ter-Petrosyan, declared the polls rigged, in contrast to western observers who felt them to be fair.