II.

Land and Resources

Cuba is part of a limestone platform, related to the limestone areas of Florida, the Bahamas, and the Yucatán. About one quarter of the island is mountainous or hilly, the remainder consisting of flat or rolling terrain. The mountainous areas are scattered throughout the island and do not stem from a central mass. The principal ranges are the Sierra de los Organos in the west, rising to 750 m/2,461 ft (and containing the karst scenery of the Guaniguánicos hill country with its limestone features and underground rivers); the Sierra de Trinidad in the central part of the island; and the Sierra Maestra in the far east. The Sierra Maestra, which includes the Sierra del Cobre and Macaca ranges, is the most rugged, extensive, and highest of the mountainous areas, rising to the highest point in the republic, the Pico Turquino (1,974 m/6,476 ft) near the south-eastern coast. One of the most notable natural features of the island is the large number of limestone caverns, notably the caves of Cotilla, near Havana. Parts of the coast, especially in the south, are swampy with marshes and mangroves. The largest area of swamp in the country is the Zapata Peninsula, south-east of Havana. The second-largest, the Ciénaga de Lanier, is on the Juventud Island, which is generally flat and low-lying. Most of the numerous rivers of Cuba are short and unnavigable. The chief river is the Cauto (343 km/213 mi long) in the south-east. The coast of Cuba is extremely irregular and is indented by gulfs and bays. Most of the northern coast is protected by reefs and cays. Notable harbours are those of Havana, Cárdenas, Bahía Honda, Matanzas, and Nuevitas on the northern coast, and Guantánamo, Santiago de Cuba, and Cienfuegos on the southern and eastern coasts.

A.

Climate

The climate of Cuba is semi-tropical, the mean annual temperature being 25° C (77° F). Extremes of heat and relative humidity during the summer season are tempered by the prevailing north-easterly trade winds; the maximum temperature averages 27.2° C (81° F) and maximum humidity, 80 per cent. Annual rainfall averages about 1,320 mm (52 in). More than 60 per cent of the rain falls during the wet season, which extends from May to October. The island is at risk from tropical storms and hurricanes between July and November. In October 1996 central Cuba was hit by Hurricane Lili. A major evacuation operation prevented any deaths, but the storm (the worst in ten years) and the rains that accompanied it did many millions of dollars’ worth of damage to crops and buildings.

B.

Natural Resources

The soil of Cuba, derived predominantly from the action of rain on limestone, is fertile and a wide range of crops is grown. About one quarter of the land is covered with forests of pine and mahogany. The country has significant mineral reserves, including about 10 per cent of the world’s known nickel deposits. There are also deposits of chromite, copper, iron, manganese, gold, silver, sulphur, cobalt, pyrites, gypsum, asbestos, oil, salt, sand, clay, and limestone. Crude oil deposits on the northern coast are exploited commercially.

C.

Plants and Animals

Cuba has a wide variety of tropical vegetation, with some 6,000 species of plant, around half of which are native to the island. Forests cover about one quarter of the island, but original forest is confined to some of the highest peaks in the Sierra Maestra and in the mangrove swamps of the Zapata Peninsula. There are more than 200 species of palm. The royal palm (Resistonea regia) is Cuba’s national tree, and is represented on the republic’s coat-of-arms. The rare cork palm (Microcycas calocoma) is a survivor from the Cretaceous period. Other trees include mahogany, ebony, lignum vitae, ceiba (Kapok), fig, logwood, rosewood, oak, cedar, and pines. There are also many flowering trees and fruit trees, notably the butterfly jasmine, which is the national flower. Cuba’s fauna is equally rich. The country claims to have the world’s smallest of a number of animals: the Cuban pygmy frog, one of about 30 small frogs; the solenodon, a shrew-like insectivore; the butterfly or moth bat; and the bee hummingbird (Mellisuga helenae) or zunzuncito. The largest land mammal is the hutia, a rat-like rodent that grows to about 60 cm (24 in) in length. The forest-dwelling Cuban trogon, or tocororo, is considered to be the national bird because its plumage has the same colours as the Cuban flag—red, white, and blue. There are many hundreds of species of birds, some of which are endangered, such as the carpintero real woodpecker, the ivory-billed woodpecker, the pygmy owl, the Cuban green parrot, and the ferminia. In the Zapata Peninsula alone there are 170 species of native birds, which are joined by many hundreds more species of migrating waterbirds and others. Reptiles are Cuba’s most abundant land fauna, and include frogs, iguanas, crocodiles, lizards, salamanders, and 15 species of non-poisonous snakes, including the boa constrictor. About 10,000 species of insect have been recorded, including many butterflies. Some of Cuba’s varied wildlife is threatened by over-hunting. There are six national parks, including the Zapata Peninsula.

D.

Environmental Concerns

Although Cuba was once almost entirely forested, by the late 1950s only 14 per cent of the country remained under forest cover. As a result of reforestation efforts, this figure has risen to 16.8 per cent (1995). Deforestation and agriculture contribute to soil erosion, another environmental challenge in Cuba. Agriculture is vital to Cuba's economy: food makes up over 89 per cent (1980) of the country's total exports and more than 40 per cent (1997) of the country's area is devoted to arable land and permanent crops. Cuba's integrated pest management programme, an alternative to pesticide use, has made environmental gains while maintaining agricultural output and reducing costs.

Cuba has the greatest biodiversity in the Caribbean, much of it endemic, and the country's vast mangrove swamps and wetlands support a wide variety of marine life. Parks and other reserves protect 17.4 per cent (1997) of Cuba's land. Coastal pollution and excessive hunting present severe threats to wildlife populations, however. Cuba is party to international agreements concerning biodiversity, climate change, endangered species, hazardous wastes, marine dumping, and ship pollution.