I.

Introduction

Sri Lanka, officially Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, formerly Ceylon, island republic in the Indian Ocean off the south-eastern coast of India. Sri Lanka is separated from India by the Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar. Lying between the two nations is a chain of tiny islands known as Adam’s Bridge. Sri Lanka is somewhat pear-shaped, with its apex in the north. The greatest length from north to south is about 440 km (273 mi); the greatest width is about 220 km (137 mi). The total area of Sri Lanka is 65,610 sq km (25,332 sq mi). The capital of Sri Lanka is the ancient city of Sri Jayavardhanapura-Kotte; Colombo is the largest city.

II.

Land and Resources

An outstanding feature of the topography of Sri Lanka is a mountainous mass in the south-central part of the country, the highest point of which is the peak of Pidurutalagala (2,524 m/8,281 ft). In the upland area are two plateaux, Nuwara Eliya and Horton Plains, which are major centres of commercial tea plantations. The plateaux are noted for their cool, healthful climate. North of the mountains, and extending south, is an arid and gently rolling plain known as the dry zone.

Sri Lanka’s coast, particularly the west, south, and south-east, is palm-fringed and indented by lagoons and inlets. The more rugged north-eastern coast contains Trincomalee Harbour, considered one of the best natural harbours in the world. On the south-western coast other harbours include the largely artificial one at Colombo and one at Galle.

A.

Rivers and Lakes

Rivers and streams that are broken by rapids are especially numerous in the mountainous south-central region. The longest river is the Mahaweli Ganga, which empties into the Indian Ocean south of Trincomalee. Other rivers include the Kelani, the mouth of which is near Colombo; the Kalu, which reaches the sea near Kalutara on the south-western coast; and the Aruvi Aru, which flows north-west across the dry zone to a point near Mannar.

B.

Climate

Because Sri Lanka is situated near the equator, the climate is generally hot and humid. The hill and mountain areas, however, are cool, and the humidity is relatively lower in the dry zone. The average annual temperature is 32.2° C (90° F) in the lowlands and 21.1° C (70° F) in the higher mountainous regions.

Precipitation is characterized by wide seasonal and regional variations. The monsoon season in the south-west is from May to September, at which time the rainfall is exceptionally heavy. The hills and the lowlands of the south-western section, which is known as the wet zone, normally have some rainfall throughout the year, but peaks occur in May and June and in October and November. In the northern dry zone the main precipitation of about 1,016 mm (40 in) annually occurs during the monsoon season, which begins in December and lasts until February. Most crops in the dry zone, however, require irrigation.

C.

Natural Resources

The natural resources of Sri Lanka are chiefly agricultural, but most of the land is not easily cultivated. The mineral deposits of the country are limited.

D.

Plants and Animals

Sri Lanka is noted for the beauty and variety of its vegetation. Dense tropical jungles occupy extensive areas in the south-west, and the upper mountain slopes are thickly forested. Many varieties of palm, including the areca, coconut, and palmyra, flourish in the lowlands along the coast. Mangroves and screw pines abound in coastal areas. Numerous varieties of timber trees, notably mahogany and many species of resin-yielding fruit trees, are indigenous to the wet zone. Among the timber trees that are common in the drier sections of the island are ebony and satinwood. Ferns, water hyacinths, orchids, acacias, eucalyptus trees, and cypresses flourish in various regions.

The animal life of Sri Lanka, including many species that may be in danger of extinction, is varied and includes the cheetah, leopard, several species of monkey, and elephant. The island contains numerous species of birds and reptiles.

E.

Environmental Concerns

Deforestation and soil erosion are two major environmental concerns in Sri Lanka. In all, 28 per cent (1995) of the country's total land area is forested. Population pressures threaten those forests though, and large tracts of forest have been cut down for fuel wood or for timber export and have been replaced by farms. This has led to loss of wildlife habitats and to increased soil erosion and degradation. The animal life of Sri Lanka is diverse and includes many species that may be in danger of extinction, such as cheetah, leopard, several species of monkeys, and elephant. A number of threatened species continue to be hunted illegally by poachers.

Other issues are increased pollution and degradation through industrial activities, and freshwater resources being polluted by industrial wastes and sewage runoff. The island's coastal ecosystems suffer from pollution caused by mining activities and the tourist trade, and freshwater resources are being polluted by industrial waste and sewage run-off. Much of Sri Lanka's mangrove forest, an important coastal habitat, has been cut down to make way for farmland and fish cultivation ponds. The government of Sri Lanka has taken action to conserve wildlife, however. Nearly 13.3 per cent (1997) of the land is protected. The Sinharaja Forest Reserve, which protects the largest remaining stand of primary rainforest on the island, was declared a World Heritage Site in 1988.

The government has ratified international environmental agreements on biodiversity, climate change, desertification, endangered species, environmental modification, hazardous wastes, law of the sea, nuclear test ban, ozone layer protection, and wetlands.

III.

Population

About 74 per cent of the population of Sri Lanka is of Sinhalese descent. The largest minority groups are the Sri Lankan Tamils and the Indian Tamils, which together account for about 18 per cent of the population. The remaining population includes the descendants of Moors (Arabs), Burghers (Dutch), Malays, and Veddas (the indigenous people).

A.

Population Characteristics

Sri Lanka has a population of 21,128,773 (2008 estimate), which yields an estimated overall population density of 326 people per sq km (845 per sq mi). Life expectancy for men is 73 years; for women, 77 years.

B.

Political Divisions

Sri Lanka is divided into 9 provinces and 25 administrative districts. Each district is headed by an appointed district minister.

C.

Principal Cities

Less than one quarter (21 per cent in 2005) of Sri Lanka’s population lives in urban communities. Colombo has a population of 642,163 (2001). Most of the foreign trade of the island is routed through Colombo, and the city has been an important fuelling station for ships that pass through the Suez Canal. Other important cities are the rapidly expanding suburb of Colombo, Dehiwala, with a population of 209,787 (2001); the seaport of Jaffna, with a population of 145,600 (1997 estimate); Sri Jayavardhanapura, the capital, 117,000 (2003 estimate); the ancient capital city of Kandy, 110,049 (2001); and the seaport of Galle, 90,934 (2001).

D.

Religion

Buddhism, which was introduced into Sri Lanka in the 3rd century bc, is the prevailing faith. As practised in Sri Lanka, Buddhism also exhibits elements of both Hindu and Islamic traditions. About 69 per cent of the population is Buddhist, 16 per cent is Hindu, 8 per cent is Muslim, and 7 per cent is Christian.

E.

Language

The official language of Sri Lanka is Sinhala, or Sinhalese, spoken by more than 70 per cent of the population as a first language. Tamil, a Dravidian language of southern India, is spoken by people living in the northern and eastern provinces (see Indian Languages). English, the official language of the country until 1957, is still widely used. Sri Lankan Creole Malay, a Malay-based creole with Tamil influence, is a first language for a very small number of the population.

F.

Education

In Sri Lanka schooling is compulsory for children from 5 to 15 years of age. Free education to university level is provided by the state. In 1996, Sri Lanka had about 9,554 primary schools and approximately 1,230 secondary schools, of which most were government institutions. In 1995 state primary schools were staffed by about 70,537 teachers and were attended by 1,962,498 pupils. In the same year there were 103,572 secondary school teachers teaching 2,135,075 pupils. The University of Sri Jayewardenepura (1959) is one of the country’s major institutions of higher education. There are another 12 university-level institutes. In 1995 approximately 63,660 students were enrolled in the country’s universities and colleges. Adult literacy is around 93 per cent. In 2001, 8 per cent of total government expenditure was spent on education.

G.

Culture

Religion plays an important role in Sri Lanka; a revival of Buddhism was associated with the rise of Sinhalese nationalism. Most public holidays are based on religious festivals. The annual torchlight temple procession, Perahara, in which ornamentally covered elephants and hundreds of dancers participate, draws thousands of devotees. Pilgrimages also play an important role in people’s lives. The most important pilgrimage is to the top of Adam’s Peak (Sinhalese, Samanala). Muslims believe that Adam and Eve lived here after they left the Garden of Eden. Buddhists visit a rock on the peak that they believe contains one of Buddha’s footprints. Another important pilgrimage is to the Temple of the Tooth (Dalada Maligawa) in Kandy, where it is believed that one of Buddha’s teeth is enshrined.

Sinhalese society, although Buddhist, is stratified along caste lines. Sri Lankan Tamil society reproduces the caste features found in India, although in modified form.

The Colombo National Museum Library (1877), incorporating the collection of the Government Oriental Library, is the largest in Sri Lanka. The oldest library is the Department of National Archives in Colombo, which contains the official records of the Dutch Administration from 1640 to 1796, the British Administration from 1796 to 1948, and the independent nation from 1948 to the present.

Middle Stone Age implements such as bones and grinding stones have been unearthed in the Bandarawela region in the south; some late Stone Age tools of ground quartz were discovered nearby. Early Buddhist pottery and iron artefacts have been found throughout the country. Hindu burial relics dating from the 3rd century bc have been discovered in the North-Western Province. The National Museums of Sri Lanka, with branches located in Colombo, Kandy, Ratnapura, Anuradhapura, Galle, and Trincomalee, contain collections of archaeological finds and historical documents of the country.

IV.

Economy

Sri Lanka’s economy has been predominantly based on agriculture. Many people are subsistence farmers, who make a living by growing rice on their small plots. A large export trade in tea, rubber, and coconuts was the dominant commercial activity until the clothing industry became the main export currency earner. Most businesses engaged in producing these goods were nationalized by the middle and late 1970s. The government also controlled banking and insurance, as well as mining and the manufacture of such basic goods as fertilizers, textiles, cement, and petroleum. Retail businesses and the manufacturing of consumer goods remained in private hands.

In the late 1970s the government launched a new programme to accelerate economic growth that included the elimination of various state monopolies to allow for more private-sector competition; the government sought to promote foreign investment in export-oriented industries in the mid-1980s.

Sri Lanka had a gross national product (GNP) (World Bank estimate) in 2004 of about US$19,547 million, equivalent to about US$1,310 per capita. In 2006 the annual budget included revenue of US$4,589 million and expenditure of US$5,981 million. Although economic growth accelerated in the early 1990s, with domestic conditions improving and conditions for foreign investment brightening, the Tamil insurgency has discouraged foreign investors and high unemployment and ethnic violence have dimmed Sri Lanka’s economic prospects. A further problem has been the need to curb government overspending.

The continuing violence has affected Sri Lanka’s tourism industry. Approximately 560,000 tourists visited the country in 2006 compared to 410,000 in 1995. Tourist receipts brought in around US$373 million in 2006.

A.

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing

About 30 per cent of Sri Lanka’s land is under cultivation, with another 7 per cent being permanent pasture. Tea covers only 12 per cent of the cultivated acreage, but it accounts for about 13 per cent of the country’s export earnings; in 2006 Sri Lanka produced 310,800 tonnes of tea. Tea, rubber, and coconuts are the principal cash crops. In 1990 Sri Lanka overtook India as the world’s largest tea exporter. The agricultural sector contributed an estimated 16.5 per cent towards gross domestic product (GDP) in 2006.

Rice is the basic food of the people and the principal crop of the island. More acreage is devoted to the cultivation of rice than to any other crop; the estimated annual output in 2006 was 3.34 million tonnes. Vegetables are grown in small amounts, but they are mostly cultivated by farmers for their own private consumption. Considerable quantities of sugar, wheat, and rice are imported.

Animal husbandry is of comparatively little importance to the economy of Sri Lanka. In 2006 the island contained an estimated 1.21 million cattle, 314,080 buffaloes, 381,550 goats, and 13.3 million chickens and poultry. Pigs and sheep are also raised.

About 29 per cent of Sri Lanka’s land is covered by forests and woodlands. Local timber needs are satisfied by government-owned woodlands. The estimated annual timber harvest in 2006 was about 6.28 million cu m (222 million cu ft); more than 90 per cent of the harvested wood was used for fuel. The fishing industry is restricted to a small coastal fringe and contributes relatively little to the national economy; the annual catch in 2005 amounted to approximately 164,230 tonnes.

B.

Mining

Although mineral resources are generally limited, Sri Lanka is an important source of high-grade lump amorphous graphite, used in the manufacture of carbon brushes for electric motors. Output of natural graphite in the early 1990s was 3,300 tonnes annually. Ilmenite, rutile, and zircon are also mined for commercial uses. Limestone is mined for a government-owned cement factory at Jaffna. Other mined resources include salt, mica, kaolin (a fine clay), glass sands, and precious and semi-precious stones.

C.

Manufacturing

In 2006, mechanized industry accounted for about 27 per cent of the country’s yearly GDP. The more important industrial enterprises, most of which are entirely or partly government owned, produce such goods as textiles, clothing, steel, tyres, cement, sugar, cigarettes, paper and leather goods, electronic equipment, refined petroleum, chemicals, ceramics, and processed food. Manufacturing contributed an estimated 14 per cent towards the GDP in 2006.

D.

Energy

In 2003 the total amount of electricity generated was about 7.3 billion kWh, while the amount consumed was 6.80 billion kWh. Approximately 40 per cent of the power was produced by hydroelectric facilities.

E.

Currency and Banking

The monetary unit of Sri Lanka is the Sri Lankan rupee of 100 cents (109.82 rupees equalled US$1; early 2008). The bank of issue is the Central Bank of Sri Lanka.

F.

Trade and Commerce

In 2004 annual imports cost US$8 billion and exports earned US$5 billion. The chief exports in 1994 were clothing (46 per cent of export earnings), tea (13 per cent), pearls (7 per cent), and rubber (2 per cent), followed by coconut products, graphite, and precious and semi-precious stones. Foodstuffs, mainly rice, flour, and sugar, make up a significant share of imports. Other imports include petroleum products, chemicals, machinery, and transport equipment. Sri Lanka’s chief trading partners are Japan, the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany, South Korea, and India.

G.

Labour

In 2006 about 8.37 million Sri Lankans were economically active, most being unskilled workers. Approximately 34 per cent worked in agriculture, 39 per cent in services, and 23 per cent in industry. About one third of all workers were organized in some 1,300 trade unions. Progressive labour legislation has been enacted, covering minimum wage, health, and welfare, but enforcement has proven difficult because of staff shortages.

H.

Transport

In 2003 a network of about 97,286 km (60,451 mi) of roads; approximately 81 per cent were paved, main national routes. The best-developed road system is that in the plantation areas. In 2002 there were 34 motor vehicles per 1,000 people in Sri Lanka, which gave a ratio of 13 passenger cars per 1,000 people. Railway track totalled about 1,449 km (900 mi) in 2003.

Sri Lanka’s main international airport is Katunayake, just north of Colombo. The government-owned airline, Air Lanka, provides domestic and international services.

I.

Communications

All electronic communications in Sri Lanka are government controlled. The country has 12 daily newspapers with a combined daily circulation of around 530,000 (1996). In the early 1990s the largest daily was the Dinamina, published in Colombo. In 2000 Sri Lanka had approximately 350,000 telephones, 4 million radio receivers, and 2 million television sets. Television broadcasting began in Colombo in 1979; there are five broadcast stations.

V.

Government

Sri Lanka is governed under a constitution adopted in 1978.

A.

Executive and Legislature

The chief of state and head of government of Sri Lanka is a president, who is elected directly to a term of six years. The president appoints the prime minister and members of the Cabinet, and has the authority to dismiss the parliament.

According to the 1978 Sri Lankan constitution, the unicameral parliament is the “legislative power of the people”. The 225 members of parliament are elected directly by a system of proportional representation.

B.

Political Parties

Following the 2004 elections the major political grouping in Sri Lanka is the United People's Freedom Alliance (UPFA) with 105 seats. The United National Party (UNP) won 82 seats and is the major opposition party. Other smaller groupings and parties securing seats at the election were the Tamil National Alliance with 22, the National Heritage Party (Jathika Hela Urumaya) with 9, and the Sri Lanka Muslim Congress with 5.

C.

Local Government

Sri Lanka is divided into 25 administrative districts. Each district is presided over by an appointed district minister. Other local government units include 12 municipal councils and 39 urban councils.

D.

Judiciary

The Sri Lankan judiciary consists of the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, the High Court, provincial courts, district courts, magistrates’ courts, and primary courts. The chief justice of the Supreme Court and two subordinate justices appointed by the president make up the Judicial Service Commission, which has appellate and review powers in criminal cases and exclusive powers in the most serious criminal offences.

E.

Health and Welfare

In the mid-1990s Sri Lanka had about 3,345 doctors and 49,000 hospital beds; there were 4,745 people for every doctor. The infant mortality rate declined from 63 deaths per 1,000 live births in the mid-1960s to 19 in 2008. In 2001, 5 per cent of government expenditure was spent on health. Unemployment benefit was introduced in 1977. Just over 9 per cent of the population was unemployed in 2004.

F.

Defence

Military service is voluntary. In 2004 the armed forces in Sri Lanka were made up of an army of 78,000 personnel, a navy of 15,000, and an air force of 18,000. There is a paramilitary police force of 80,000 and an anti-guerrilla force of some 3,000. In 2001 15 per cent of government expenditure was spent on defence.

G.

International Organizations

Sri Lanka is a member of the United Nations (UN), the Commonwealth of Nations, the World Trade Organization (WTO), and the Colombo Plan.

VI.

History

According to the Hindu epic, the Ramayana, the land of “Lanka”, which is popularly associated with Sri Lanka, is described as prosperous and highly cultured under the rule of Ravana. No historical evidence exists to support this, however. Sri Lanka was conquered in prehistoric times by Rama, an incarnation of the god Vishnu, in order to reclaim his stolen wife, Sita. The written history of the country begins with the chronicle known as the Mahavamsa. This work was started in the 6th century ad and provides a virtually unbroken narrative up to 1815. The Mahavamsa was compiled by a succession of Buddhist monks. Because it often aims to glorify or to degrade certain periods or reigns, it is not a wholly reliable source despite its wealth of historical material.

A.

Ancient Sinhala

The Mahavamsa relates that the island was conquered in 504 BC by Vijaya, a Hindu prince from north-east India. After subjugating the aboriginal inhabitants, a people now known as Veddas, Vijaya married a native princess, encouraged emigration from the mainland, and made himself ruler of the entire island. However, the realm (called Sinhala after Vijaya’s patrimonial name) that was inherited by his successors consisted of the arid region lying to the north of the south-central mountain system.

Members of the dynasty founded by Vijaya reigned over Sinhala for several centuries. During this period, and particularly after the adoption in the 3rd century bc of Buddhism as the national religion, the Sinhalese created a highly developed civilization. Extant evidence of their engineering skill and architectural achievements includes remnants of vast irrigation projects, many ruined cities, notably the ancient capital Anuradhapura, and numerous ruined shrines (dasobas).

B.

Foreign Control

From the late 3rd century ad to the middle of the 12th century, Sinhala was dominated by Tamil kings and by a succession of invaders from southern India. Local princes regained power briefly in the late 12th century and again in the 13th century. From 1408 to 1438 Chinese forces occupied the island of Sinhala, which had been partitioned into a number of petty kingdoms.

In 1517 the Portuguese, having established friendly relations with one of the island’s monarchs, founded a fort and trading post at Colombo. Their sphere of influence expanded steadily thereafter, mainly as a result of successful wars of conquest, and by the end of the 16th century they controlled large sections of the island. Consequently, in 1638 and 1639, when the Dutch launched the first of a series of attacks on Portuguese strongholds in the island, they found numerous allies among the local people. The struggle ended in 1658 with the Dutch gaining control of most of the island, although the kingdom of Kandy remained an independent entity.

C.

British Rule

In 1795, following the occupation of the Netherlands by France, the British government dispatched an expeditionary force to the island. The Dutch capitulated early the next year, and in 1798 the British made all the island, except the kingdom of Kandy, the Crown Colony of Ceylon. By the provisions of the 1802 Treaty of Amiens, which terminated the second phase of the Napoleonic Wars, the country was formally ceded to Great Britain. The kingdom of Kandy was also occupied in 1803 and annexed to the Crown Colony in 1815.

The British period of rule was marked by abortive rebellions in 1817, 1843, and 1848. Tea and rubber estates were developed. In this period violent social and religious struggles between the Sinhalese peasants, mostly Buddhists, and the moneylenders and traders, chiefly Muslims, also occurred, and all the local peoples struggled continuously for representative government and national freedom. The first substantial victory in the struggle for self-government came after more than a century, when, in 1931, Great Britain promulgated a new constitution that granted Sri Lankans semi-autonomous control over national affairs.

During World War II, Sri Lanka was an important base of operations in the Allied offensive against the Japanese and a major source of rubber, foodstuffs, and other materials vital to the war effort.

D.

Independence

On February 4, 1948, the colony of Ceylon gained its independence, with dominion status as a member of the Commonwealth of Nations; Sir Henry Moore was installed as Governor-General and D. S. Senanayake, leader of the United National Party (UNP), became prime minister. An ancient Sinhalese flag was adopted as the flag of the new state.

The foreign ministers of the Commonwealth of Nations assembled in Colombo in January 1950, and drafted a tentative plan for the economic development of South East Asia. As finally formulated, the Colombo Plan allocated nearly US$340 million of Commonwealth funds for a variety of projects designed to advance the Sri Lankan economy, notably irrigation works and hydroelectric plants.

When D. S. Senanayake died in 1952, his son, Dudley Senanayake, who belonged to the same party, was named prime minister. In 1954 Sri Lanka declined to join the South East Asia Treaty Organization, which was formed as a defensive alliance by the United States, Great Britain, and six other nations. On December 14, 1955, Sri Lanka was admitted as a member of the UN.

E.

The Bandaranaikes

The UNP lost the elections held in April 1956, and Solomon West Ridgeway Dias Bandaranaike, leader of the Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP), became prime minister. Sri Lanka subsequently adopted a policy of neutrality in the disputes between the communist and non-communist countries. The United States agreed in early 1958 to provide the country with technical assistance and a grant of about US$780,000 for economic projects. The Soviet Union and Sri Lanka signed trade and economic agreements at about the same time. Shortly afterwards the country accepted a loan of about US$10.5 million from China.

E.1.

Assassination of Bandaranaike

On September 25, 1959, Prime Minister Bandaranaike was shot by a Buddhist monk and died the following day. In the general elections of March 19, 1960, the UNP won the greatest number of votes, and two days later Dudley Senanayake again became prime minister in a minority Cabinet, which quickly lost parliamentary confidence. New general elections held on July 20 resulted in the victory of the SLFP now led by Sirimavo Bandaranaike, widow of the late prime minister, and she was sworn in as prime minister.

E.2.

Sinhalese-Tamil Conflict

On December 31, 1960, a bill was passed making Sinhalese the only official language of the country. Representatives of the Tamil-speaking minority led mass demonstrations against the measure in early 1961. To cope with the situation, a state of emergency was declared, the Tamil Federal Party (TFP) was forbidden to operate, and strikes were declared illegal. Sinhalese-Tamil relations continued to be strained until January 1966, when Tamil was made the official administrative language in the northern and eastern parts of the island.

F.

The Republic

With the nation in a period of economic decline, Dudley Senanayake was returned to power in the 1965 legislative elections. His policy of non-alignment, economic development, and increased domestic production did not satisfy the voters, as high unemployment, food shortages, and labour unrest continued. In 1970 a leftist coalition headed by Sirimavo Bandaranaike won the elections; the new government began to move the country towards socialism. In March 1971 a brief but violent armed revolt took place, sparked by leaders of the Marxist-oriented People’s Liberation Front. By September, the Bandaranaike government had almost completely suppressed the rebellion. In that month the Senate was abolished and the House of Representatives was renamed the National Assembly.

On May 22, 1972, the country, officially changed its name from Ceylon to the Republic of Sri Lanka, when the assembly adopted a new constitution. Bandaranaike continued as prime minister, and William Gopallawa was appointed president.

In 1977 Bandaranaike’s government was decisively defeated at the polls. She was replaced as prime minister by Junius R. Jayewardene, leader of the UNP. In 1978 his government replaced the 1972 constitution with one providing for an executive president, an office which Jayewardene then assumed. Reversing the socialist trends of his predecessor, he achieved some initial economic gains. By 1980, however, inflation and falling wages led to a general strike, which the government thwarted only by calling out troops. Later in the year Bandaranaike was expelled from the National Assembly and barred from voting or standing for election for seven years. The Supreme Court had previously found her to have abused her power during her years as the country’s prime minister. Jayewardene won re-election for a second six-year presidential term in October 1982. Subsequently, in December, a government proposal to extend the life of parliament until 1989 was approved by popular referendum.

G.

Civil War

In 1983 a civil war began between the Sinhalese-dominated government and the rebel Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), a group seeking to create a separate nation for the Tamil minority in the northern and eastern parts of Sri Lanka. In June 1987, after an agreement with Jayewardene, Indian troops moved into northern Sri Lanka to enforce a peace agreement between the Sinhalese and the Tamils. Warfare subsided, and Jayewardene retired from the presidency in 1988; Ranasinghe Premadasa was elected to succeed him that year, defeating Bandaranaike. Premadasa’s UNP retained its majority in the parliamentary elections of February 1989, and the last Indian troops departed in March.

The period of relative peace was shortlived. In 1991 and 1992 several major battles were fought between the army and the LTTE, and in early 1993 the parliament was rocked by two assassinations. On April 23 Lalith Athulathmudali, who had founded the opposition Democratic United National Front in 1991, was shot dead during a political rally. A week later, during the annual May Day parade, President Premadasa was assassinated by a suicide bomber who was allegedly a member of LTTE. Days later the parliament unanimously elected UNP member Dingiri Banda Wijetunge, who previously was the premier, to serve as the president until the next national election.

In November 1993 LTTE forces managed to seize a government military base in Pooneryn, about 32 km (20 mi) south-east of Jaffna. Several days later government forces drove the rebels back, and recovered the base. The fighting was some of the worst seen between the Sri Lankan government and rebel Tamil forces. In parliamentary elections held in August 1994, the United Socialist Alliance defeated the UNP, and Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga became prime minister. Kumaratunga promptly opened talks with the LTTE to try to resolve the long-running civil war. She then won presidential elections in November to become Sri Lanka’s first woman president, after a campaign in which the UNP presidential candidate was assassinated, reportedly by the LTTE.

In December 1994 the LTTE accepted a ceasefire, but hostilities flared again after the collapse of talks in April 1995. A series of government offensives beginning in June 1995 culminated in December in the fall of Jaffna, the LTTE stronghold and effectively out of central government control since 1990. However, the LTTE retaliated with a series of bloody attacks, including a lorry bomb in Colombo in January 1996 which left more than 80 people dead. In April 1996 Kumaratunga’s government introduced a nationwide state of emergency.

H.

Continuing Unrest

Early in 1997, President Kumaratunga and the opposition leader Ranil Wickramasinghe agreed to pursue a common approach towards ending the 14-year war with the separatist LTTE and the government launched a fresh offensive—Operation Jaya Sikuru (Sure Victory)—in May. With the LTTE suffering heavy losses, the government advanced north to the Jaffna Peninsula, the Tigers’ stronghold. Heavy fighting continued for some months. In July the state of emergency, which had been in place for over a year, was lifted in large areas of the country, but remained in force in the north-east, Colombo, and other towns thought vulnerable to LTTE attack. The third commission investigating the 1988-1990 “reign of terror” submitted the results of their inquiries to the government in September. The commission had found evidence to suggest that 16,742 of the nearly 19,000 people reported missing in Sri Lanka’s north-east and south during the period had been killed. In response, the government announced that it would be taking action against all those implicated. A draft constitution prepared by the government giving wider autonomy to Tamils was rejected by parliament at the end of the year. Sporadic bombings continued, with an attack in January 1998 on Sri Lanka’s most holy Buddhist shrine, the Temple of the Tooth at Kandy, by a suicide bomber, in which 11 people were killed. Although no group claimed responsibility for the bombing, the government retaliated by outlawing the LTTE. The country’s celebrations on the 50th anniversary of independence in February 1998, however, passed without major incident.

The opposition, in the aftermath of the government’s failed devolution strategy, put forward plans for a power-sharing arrangement with Tamil and Muslim minorities early in 1999, but this too collapsed, while fighting intensified in the north and east of the island. In March a United Nations body released figures showing Sri Lanka to have 12,000 missing persons, the second-highest number of disappeared people in the world after Iraq, which has 16,000. The Sri Lankan defence ministry estimated that 19,457 people have died in the past four years, while demonstrators against the civil war claimed that over 50,000 people have died in the war since it began in 1983. Exhumation began of a mass grave at Chemmani, near Jaffna, in June. The grave is thought to contain the bodies of approximately 600 civilians killed by Sri Lankan troops.

In an attempt to revive popular support for her leadership, President Kumaratunga announced in October that the general election would be held in December (11 months earlier than scheduled). Campaigning was marred by violence from the outset and in November an attempt was made on the life of opposition leader Wickramasinghe. Just three days before the election, Kumaratunga was wounded in an assassination attempt; the bomb attack killed 23 people. Kumaratunga was re-elected president, with 51 per cent of the vote.

Fighting continued between the LTTE and government troops throughout early 2000 in the Jaffna peninsula, despite Norwegian mediation efforts, with the LTTE capturing the strategically critical Elephant Pass, the gateway into the peninsula, in April and virtually trapping the Sri Lankan army in Jaffna city by May. Kumaratunga, refusing the offer of a ceasefire to evacuate the troops, declared a state of war on May 3, imposing widespread emergency measures, including press censorship and a ban on strikes. The continuing warfare has had a significant impact on the country’s economy, taxed by heavy defence expenditure and a serious decline in tourism, and the failure to attract foreign investment.

In the meantime, constitutional reforms proposed by the government, involving devolution of seven provinces but retaining a unified state, were rejected by opposition Tamil parties and dismissed by the LTTE, finally also losing the support of the main opposition party, the UNP. General elections held on October 10 failed to give the People’s Alliance (PA) coalition the overall majority that would have allowed a revival of the proposals, though it remained the biggest bloc. The PA increased its seats from 107 to 115 by forging alliances with the Tamil Eelam People’s Democratic Party and the National Unity Alliance. As in 1999, the elections were marred by violence and bombings, forcing imposition of overnight curfews, as well as allegations of fraud, though voter turnout (except in the war-torn Jaffna peninsula) was estimated to be over 75 per cent.

Sirimavo Bandaranaike, who had resigned from the post of prime minister in August due to ill health, died of a heart attack on polling day, aged 84. A figure of considerable influence in the region, as well as the world’s first woman prime minister, she was accorded a state funeral. Her replacement as prime minister, Ratnasiri Wickremanayake, continued in this post after the election.

Further attempts at mediation by a Norwegian team produced initially encouraging results at the end of 2000, with an expression of willingness by the government to begin negotiations. Velupillai Prabhakaran, leader of the LTTE, called for talks at the end of November, significantly omitting mention of the prerequisites of a ceasefire and withdrawal of government troops formerly demanded by the LTTE. A month later, the LTTE unilaterally declared a ceasefire, and continued to extend the deadline well into 2001. These moves were, however, rejected by the government, which continued to seek military assistance, and was offered a US$20 million loan by Pakistan to purchase arms in February 2001.

In July there was an attack by the LTTE on Bandaranaike International Airport in which 18 people were killed. In the face of escalating tensions the planned referendum on devolving power to the regions was cancelled by the president. The Norwegian-brokered peace talks also faltered and facing a number of potential votes of no-confidence in the government President Kumaratunga dissolved parliament with a general election called for December 5.

I.

Wickramasinghe’s Return as Prime Minister

The run-up to the election was the most violent on record with over 60 deaths being notified. A series of curfews was used to stem the violence. The election was won by former prime minister Ranil Wickramasinghe, whose United National Party (UNP) secured 109 seats in the 225-member assembly; in alliance with the Sri Lanka Muslim Congress the UNP secured sufficient seats to take power. The president’s party, the People’s Alliance, won only 77 seats. Immediately there were problems between the prime minister and president over the composition of the Cabinet, with Kumaratunga, for a time, refusing to relinquish the defence and finance portfolios.

The new government pledged to seek an answer to the continuing problems of Tamil independence and were significantly helped by an LTTE ceasefire in late December; uniquely for Sri Lanka, the government acknowledged the move with a ceasefire of its own and the Norwegian-mediated peace talks resumed.

J.

Moves Towards Peace

A further ceasefire in February confirmed the growing evidence of goodwill between the two sides. The LTTE agreed to the decommissioning of its weapons and prisoners of war were also exchanged. In a further conciliatory gesture the government lifted the ban on the LTTE. Structured peace talks began in October to discuss the LTTE’s demand for political autonomy in the north and east of the country, with their demands for full independence having been dropped. Any constitutional changes will need to be approved in a referendum.

In a snap election held in April 2004 the United People's Freedom Alliance (UPFA) won the most seats but failed to win a majority. Wickramasinghe stood down and was replaced as prime minister by Mahinda Rajapakse of the UPFA, who set about trying to form a strong ruling coalition to push forward the peace process and increase stability in the country.

On December 26, 2004, an undersea earthquake measuring 9.1 on the Richter scale occurred in the Indian Ocean, with its epicentre off the western coast of Indonesia. The third largest earthquake in recorded history generated a massive tsunami, which caused widespread devastation when it hit land. Sri Lanka was particularly badly affected, with many coastal communities destroyed by waves that reached 10 m (30 ft) high. Initial estimates suggested that more than 30,000 Sri Lankans were killed. Additionally, the LTTE declared tens of thousands of deaths in the areas under its control. As many as 1.5 million people were displaced or left homeless following the disaster. A train travelling between Galle and Colombo was swept away by the waves, killing 1,600 people onboard—the worst rail disaster on record. An agreement was reached in June that saw disaster aid shared with the LTTE for use in its occupied areas.

K.

Rajapakse Presidency

In November 2005, at the end of President Kumaratunga’s two terms as president, new elections were held pitting the prime minister Mahinda Rajapakse against Ranil Wickramasinghe of the UNP, as well as 11 other outside candidates. Rajapakse was the winner, securing just over 50 per cent of the vote. Many Tamils boycotted the election in protest at Rajapakse, who advocates a renegotiation of the peace deal with the LTTE and has publicly criticized the sharing of aid with the group. Ratnasiri Wickremanayake was appointed the new prime minister.