I.

Introduction

Madagascar, republic in the Indian Ocean, separated from the south-eastern coast of Africa by the Mozambique Channel. In full the Democratic Republic of Madagascar, it is made up of Madagascar Island, the fourth-largest island in the world, and several small islands. The country’s total area is 587,041 sq km (226,658 sq mi). Madagascar was annexed by the French in 1896 and became self-governing within the French Community in 1958 as the Malagasy Republic. It gained full independence in 1960 and took the name Democratic Republic of Madagascar in 1975. Antananarivo is the capital and largest city.

II.

Land and Resources

A central mountainous plateau, partly volcanic in origin, dominates the island of Madagascar. The highest point is Mount Maromokotro in the north, at 2,876 m (9,436 ft). In the centre, the massive Ankaratra Mountains, near Antananarivo, reach a height of 2,643 m (8,671 ft). The land slopes steeply to a narrow lowland bordering the Indian Ocean in the east and to a somewhat wider coastal plain along the Mozambique Channel in the west. The country’s best soil is found along the coast and in river valleys of the central plateau. There are problems of severe loss of forest cover accompanied by erosion.

A.

Rivers and Lakes

The major rivers of Madagascar are the Betsiboka, Tsiribihina, Mangoky, and Onilahy; all rise in the uplands near the eastern coast and flow west to the Mozambique Channel through fertile valleys. By contrast, rivers flowing to the Indian Ocean are short and swift, frequently plunging from the uplands in waterfalls. The largest lake is Alaotra, near Toamasina.

B.

Climate

The eastern part of Madagascar receives a lot of rain, brought by south-easterly trade winds; annual rainfall in some places exceeds 3,050 mm (120 in). The central plateau gets considerably less moisture, and arid areas in the south and south-west receive less than 380 mm (15 in) per year. Most of the rain falls from November to April. The coastal regions are generally hot throughout the year. The central plateau has a temperate climate, with warm summers and cool winters.

C.

Plants and Animals

Tropical rainforests containing valuable hardwoods are common in eastern Madagascar. Savannah woodland and grasslands predominate in the drier western regions, and desert vegetation occurs in the extreme south-west. Animal life is unusual, reflecting the evolutionary stage reached when Madagascar split away from the African mainland. Lemurs, a primitive family of primate, are found only on Madagascar; there are no monkeys. Although indigenous species exhibit characteristics of both African and Indian fauna, their differences indicate they evolved on Madagascar during a long period of isolation.

D.

Natural Resources

Important mineral resources include bauxite, chromium, and nickel. Graphite, iron ore, coal, petroleum, and copper deposits, as well as small amounts of salt, garnets, and mica, are also present.

E.

Environmental Concerns

A unique biological treasure, Madagascar is home to 5 per cent of the world's plant and animal species. About 80 per cent of the island's thousands of plant species are endemic, as are more than 90 per cent of its mammal, amphibian, and reptile species and more than 50 per cent of its bird species. Madagascar is home to more than half the world's chameleon species and to essentially all of its lemurs. Insect and other invertebrate species, numbering in the tens of thousands, have not been fully studied. Some experts believe that as many as 150,000 plant and animal species may be endemic to Madagascar. However, due to deforestation and human encroachment into wild areas, 120 animal species were threatened with extinction in 1996, and hundreds have already become extinct.

Madagascar’s growing population has put increased pressures on the environment. Although the timber industry is not a threat to the island's forests, slash-and-burn agriculture and reliance on fuel wood for energy are causing large losses to forest cover. The country suffers an annual deforestation rate of 0.8 per cent (1990-1996). In 1995, 26 per cent of Madagascar's total land area was forested. Inadequate sewage disposal, as well as soil erosion caused by deforestation, has led to surface water pollution. In rural areas, only 30 per cent (1990-1998) of the people have access to safe water. Only 40 per cent (1990-1998) of the total population has access to safe water, and only 40 per cent (1990-1998) has access to sanitation.

Madagascar has a long history of conservation and was the first African country to engage in a debt-for-nature swap. Efforts are underway to increase wood supplies by reforesting eroded upland areas. The government has designated 1.9 per cent (1997) of the country's total land area as protected, and the Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve was declared a World Heritage Site in 1990. Six national parks on the country’s eastern coast were collectively designated as the Rainforests of the Atsinanana World Heritage Site in 2007. The government has ratified international environmental agreements on biodiversity, desertification, endangered species, marine life conservation, nuclear test ban, and ozone layer protection.

III.

Population

Madagascar has an ethnically diverse population of 19,448,815 (2007 estimate); the annual growth rate of population is around 3 per cent. The average population density is 33 people per sq km (87 people per sq mi), with upland areas more densely populated than coastal regions.

A.

Population Characteristics

The major ethnic groups in the interior are Malayo-Indonesian, which include mainly the Merina (Hova), who make up about 27 per cent of the total population, and the related Betsileo (12 per cent). Members of both groups are the descendants of emigrants from Indonesia, who colonized Madagascar about 2,000 years ago. Coastal areas are inhabited mainly by peoples of mixed Malayo-Indonesian, black African, and Arab ancestry; among these ethnic groups are the Tsimihety, Sakalave, and Antaisaka. Life expectancy in 2007 was 60 years for males and 64 years for females. Chronic malnutrition is a problem in Madagascar.

Only about 27 per cent of the total population is classified as urban. Antananarivo, the capital, is the largest city, with a population of 1,689,000 (2001 estimate). Other important urban centres are Toamasina, population 137,782 (1993), Antsirabe, 120,239 (1993), Mahajanga, 106,780 (1993), and Fianarantsoa, 109,248 (1993).

B.

Religion

About 52 per cent of the total population follows traditional beliefs, 41 per cent is Christian, and 7 per cent is Muslim.

C.

Language

The three official languages of Madagascar are Malagasy (the Merina dialect is the standard), French, and English. Malagasy is from the Malayo-Polynesian sub-group of the Austronesian language family, and is spoken by around 9,400,000 people in Madagascar. Only 18,000 people speak French as a mother tongue, usually the well educated. Southern Malagasy (a separate language from Malagasy) has around 2,600,000 speakers, mainly on the southern tip of the island. Tsimehety is spoken by 1,016,000 in the north-central area. Bushi and Antankarana are spoken in certain areas, as is Comorian, a Bantu language (see Niger-Congo Languages).

D.

Education

The government passed legislation in 1976 making six years of schooling compulsory; virtually all children between the ages of 6 and 11 attended elementary school, and some 14.3 per cent of those between the ages of 12 and 17 were enrolled in secondary school. By 2000 the literacy rate had risen to 67 per cent. The University of Antananarivo (1960) is the country’s principal institution of higher education. In 2001–2002, 2.5 per cent of the country’s gross national product (GNP) was spent on education.

E.

Culture

Leading libraries with collections of Malagasy history, literature, culture, and arts are the National Library and the libraries of the university and of the Académie Malgache, all in Antananarivo. The Historical Museum and the university’s Museum of Art and Archaeology, both in Antananarivo, are the chief museums. Cultural diversity is encouraged by the national government.

IV.

Economy

Madagascar is one of the world’s poorest countries, with a GNP estimated at US$5,192 million (World Bank), equivalent to US$290 per capita in 2004. The economy remains predominantly agricultural, with 86 per cent of the labour force engaged in subsistence farming. The estimated budget in 2004 included revenue of about US$2,637 million and expenditure of US$2,749 million. A privatization programme was begun in 1989; inflation resulting from flotation of the Malagasy franc in 1994 has impeded economic progress. Agriculture, including fishing and forestry, accounts for 32 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP) and contributes more than 70 per cent of export earnings. In 1986 the government introduced a five-year development plan that stressed self-sufficiency in food (mainly rice) by 1990 and intended increased production for export.

A.

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing

Because of the mountainous terrain, only about 6 per cent of Madagascar is farmed. The chief food crops are rice, cassava, beans, bananas, maize, sweet potatoes, potatoes, and taro. Cash crops include coffee, cloves, sugar cane, sisal, tobacco, and about 80 per cent of the world’s supply of vanilla. Livestock in Madagascar includes 9.69 million cattle, 1.20 million goats, and 1.60 million pigs.

In 2005 about 11.2 million cu m (397 million cu ft) of wood was cut, most of it for local use as fuel. Relatively little commercial fishing takes place; most of the 137,701 tonnes of fish caught in 2004 was consumed locally. Efforts are under way to increase wood supplies by reforesting eroded upland areas, and to restock rivers and lakes with fish.

B.

Mining

Madagascar’s mineral products include bauxite, mica, graphite, and chromium. Offshore petroleum deposits, discovered in 1980, are being prospected. Sapphires were discovered in the country in the late 1990s, and Madagascar is believed to be the biggest source of the gems in the world. Sapphire mining is largely unregulated and there are concerns that child labour is being used in their extraction.

C.

Manufacturing

Food processing (meat-packing, brewing, and sugar-refining) is the leading manufacturing industry. Petroleum-refining and motor-vehicle assembly are of growing importance, and there is some manufacturing of textiles, electronic equipment, glass, printed materials, and tobacco products.

D.

Energy

In 1994 Madagascar had an installed electricity-generating capacity of about 220,000 kW; production was about 825.4 million kWh in 2003. Approximately 66 per cent of all electricity is produced by hydroelectric power stations.

E.

Transport

Antananarivo is the hub of Madagascar’s limited transport system. The country is served by about 883 km (549 mi) of operated railways and by some 49,827 km (30,961 mi) of roads, about 12 per cent of them paved. About 5 passenger cars per 1,000 people were in use in 1997. Toamasina, the chief port, handles 35 per cent of the nation’s foreign trade. Other port cities are Mahajanga, Toliara, and Antsiraana. Madagascar has four major airports, including Ivato International Airport at Antananarivo and Amborovy International Airport at Mahajanga. Air Madagascar is the national airline.

F.

Communications

Telecommunications are well developed, and around 4 telephones per 1,000 people are in use. Radio and television broadcasting in the country is provided by Radio-Télévision Malagasy and Radio Madagasikara, both state owned. In 1997 Madagascar had about 3 million radios and 375,000 television receivers. Influential daily newspapers include the government-controlled Madagascar-Tribune and the opposition Imongo Vaovao, both issued in Antananarivo.

G.

Currency and Banking

The ariary, which was the country’s pre-colonial era currency, was re-introduced in July 2003 to replace the Malagasy franc. The ariary is divided into 5 iraimbilanja. As at early 2007, 2,121 ariary equalled US$1. All banks were nationalized in 1975 and are regulated by the Central Bank of Madagascar (1973; Banque Centrale de Madagascar); a privatization programme was begun in 1989.

H.

Commerce and Trade

Madagascar usually has a negative trade balance. In 2003, imports were valued at US$1,091 million and exports at US$766 million. Coffee, vanilla, cloves, and clove oil accounted for the majority of all exports. Chief imports were chemicals, machinery, crude petroleum, motor vehicles and parts, and metal products. France, the United States, Germany, and Japan are the country’s chief trading partners.

V.

Government

Under the 1975 constitution, Madagascar was ruled by a president, popularly elected to a seven-year term; the 22-member Supreme Revolutionary Council, appointed by the president; the Council of Ministers, headed by the prime minister; and the People’s National Assembly, with 137 members popularly elected to five-year terms.

A.

Executive and Legislature

A transitional government was instituted in November 1991, and a new multi-party constitution enshrining a unitary state and reducing presidential powers won approval after a referendum in August 1992. Under the new constitution the prime minister is the head of government and exercises virtually all executive powers. The parliament is now bicameral; in addition to the National Assembly, which currently has 160 members elected for four-year terms, there is also a recently introduced Senate, 60 seats of which are filled by regional assemblies and 30 chosen by the president.

B.

Political Parties

The dominant political body throughout the 1980s was the National Front for the Defence of the Madagascar Socialist Revolution, an umbrella organization founded in 1977 by the merger of several parties. But from 1989 onwards, political parties were no longer required to be members, and the Front declined in importance. The major parties in the National Assembly are the Association for the Rebirth of Madagascar (AREMA), the Economic Liberalism and Democratic Action for National Recovery (LEADER/Fanilo), and the Rally for Socialism and Democracy (RPSD). The “I Love Madagascar” union (TIM; Tiako I Madagasikara) won most seats in the 2002 and 2007 elections.

C.

Judiciary

The judicial system is modelled on that of France. It includes a supreme court, in Antananarivo; a court of appeal; 11 courts of first instance; and special economic and criminal tribunals.

D.

Local Government

Local government was formerly devolved to six autonomous provinces, which were divided into prefectures, sub-prefectures, and cantons. However, following the referendum of April 2007 there are to be 22 smaller local government divisions following the abolition of the provinces. These divisions are known as faritra.

E.

Health and Welfare

In 2004 there were 11,512 people per doctor and in 2007 Madagascar had an infant mortality rate of 57 deaths per 1,000 live births. Around 7 per cent of government expenditure was spent on health care in 1999.

F.

Defence

Madagascar has a 12,500-member army, and a 7,500-member paramilitary gendarmerie.

G.

International Organizations

Madagascar is a member of the United Nations (UN), the African Union, the World Trade Organization (WTO), and the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC). It is a signatory of the second Lomé Convention (1979), an economic cooperation agreement between the European Union and some 60 developing countries.

VI.

History

The people of Madagascar are descended from successive waves of migrants. These included Indonesians, who reached the island by sea in ancient times; Bantu from the African mainland; and Arab traders. Diogo Dias, a Portuguese sea captain bound for India in 1500, was the first European to sight the island. During the 17th century the Portuguese, the English, and the French in turn attempted unsuccessfully to colonize Madagascar.

A.

French Encroachment

The French gained a temporary foothold on the island in 1642 but were driven out in 1674. They finally acquired a few trading bases along the east coast in the following century. Their sphere of influence was restricted, however, as a result of the rise of a powerful monarchy among the Merina, a people of Malay origin in the central plateau. From 1810 to 1828, during the reign of the Merina king Radama I, who was hostile to the French, the British gained in influence. British officers trained Merina troops, and British missionaries set up schools and introduced Christianity.

Following the death of Radama, a strong reaction against European culture developed. Reforms were abolished, the missionaries were persecuted, and trade relations with Britain were severed. The accession of Radama II (reigned 1861-1863), a generally progressive ruler who was friendly to the French, saw the return of European ideas. Radama II was subsequently murdered by the conservative faction at the Merina court. A protracted period of strained relations and recurrent hostilities with the French culminated in submission by the reigning monarch, Queen Ranavalona III, in 1895. The following year, after a series of popular uprisings, Madagascar was proclaimed a colony of France; military rule was instituted, and the queen was exiled.

Various reforms were introduced in Madagascar during the following decades, but discontent with French rule gradually grew. In 1916 a secret nationalist society was outlawed, and hundreds of its members were jailed.

In May 1942, two years after the fall of France in World War II, the British government, fearful that the Japanese would seize Madagascar, dispatched an expeditionary force to the island. In 1943 the British handed over control to the Free French government. The post-war period was marked by a resumption of nationalist agitation.

B.

Movement Towards Independence

Under the provisions of the French constitution of 1946, Madagascar became an overseas territory of France. The constitution established elective Madagascan provincial assemblies with limited powers. In March 1947, nationalists in east Madagascar began an armed revolt against the French that was not suppressed until August. After the revolt, the government emphasized efforts to improve the economy by extending the road system and by exploiting coal deposits more systematically.

During the 1950s France took measures to increase self-government on the island. Elections held in 1951, 1952, and 1957 generally favoured those who advocated gradual attainment of independence. The constitution of the Fifth Republic of France was approved by 78 per cent of the Madagascan electorate in a referendum held on September 28, 1958.

A subsequent congress of the members of the provincial councils proclaimed Madagascar, renamed the Malagasy Republic, a semi-autonomous member of the French Community. Philibert Tsiranana, leader of the Social Democratic Party, was inaugurated as president and head of state on November 1. On June 26, 1960, the republic became fully autonomous while retaining a cordial association with France. In September it was admitted to the United Nations.

C.

Military Rule

After a decade of political stability, Madagascar underwent serious unrest in the early 1970s, although Tsiranana was re-elected for the second time in January 1972. In the spring, however, a student strike grew into general rioting, and Tsiranana was forced to hand over power to the army chief of staff, General Gabriel Ramanantsoa. Ramanantsoa was ousted by other elements of the military in early 1975; in June Lieutenant Commander Didier Ratsiraka was named head of state. On December 30 the country was renamed the Democratic Republic of Madagascar, and on January 4, 1976, Ratsiraka began a seven-year term as its president.

Economic pressures in the late 1970s added to political unrest, to which the government responded with a series of alerts and arrests; alleged anti-government plots were reported in 1977, 1980, and 1982. Re-elected in November 1982 and March 1989, Ratsiraka suppressed another coup attempt in May 1990. After massive anti-government demonstrations, he promised in August 1991 to institute democratic reforms; a transitional government took office in November, and a new constitution was approved by popular referendum in August 1992.

D.

Ratsiraka and Zafy

Albert Zafy defeated Ratsiraka in a presidential run-off election in February 1993. The transition to civilian rule was marked by opposition from troops loyal to Ratsiraka, as well as conflict with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) over economic reforms, especially the exchange rate of the Malagasy franc. In October 1995, Prime Minister Emmanuel Rakotovahiny was elected by the National Assembly.

In May 1996 Rakotovahiny resigned following a dispute over IMF funding and the president of the high court, Norbert Ratsirahonana, was appointed the new prime minister by Zafy. In September Zafy resigned reluctantly after threatened impeachment in July by the National Assembly for violating the constitution. Ratsiraka, the former military ruler, won a 36 per cent majority in the first round of presidential elections held in November. He was elected as president with an increased majority in the second round of the election in January 1997, and Pascal Rakotomavo was appointed prime minister in February. Constitutional amendments that were principally concerned with shifting from a unitary to a federal system of government were adopted following a referendum in March 1998. Following a legislative election in May, and the resignation of Pascal Rakotomavo in July, President Ratsiraka signed a decree appointing Tantely Andrianarivo as prime minister. Andrianarivo had served as deputy prime minister in the previous government.

Heavy rains and cyclones in early 2000 caused extensive flooding and damage to houses, livestock, and the important vanilla crop throughout Madagascar, making over 40,000 homeless and creating considerable economic difficulties. A subsequent cholera epidemic killed hundreds of people.

E.

Controversial Elections

In the December 2001 presidential elections the president, Didier Ratsiraka of AREMA, won 40.9 per cent of the votes against the 46.2 per cent garnered by the challenger Marc Ravalomanana. The results, which took a month to announce, were considered inconclusive and a run-off between these top two candidates was scheduled for February 2002. In protest at what he considered an unnecessary second vote, Ravalomanana and his supporters organized a general strike for the end of January and, taking the initiative the following month, he declared himself president and announced a Cabinet and prime minister, Jacques Sylla. In the midst of the street fighting that followed, Ratsiraka introduced martial law to the capital Antananarivo. He refused to stand down, moved to the coastal city of Toamasina, and imposed a blockade on the capital. However, Ratsiraka was unable to sustain enough support to make an effective challenge to Ravalomanana, and after France recognized his rival as the legitimate president of Madagascar in June, Ratsiraka left the country for Paris. Ravalomanana threatened to pursue Ratsiraka in an attempt to have him tried for crimes committed under his presidency; he was sentenced to ten years’ hard labour in his absence. Parliamentary elections were held in December 2002 and were decisively won by the I Love Madagascar party with 103 seats.

F.

The Ravalomanana Presidency

Ravalomanana managed to successfully encourage overseas aid and investment. The economy grew and although opponents complained that he was abusing his position to further his business interests he remained popular. He was re-elected in December 2006 with nearly 55 per cent of the vote. He appointed Charles Rabemananjara as prime minister. Ravalomanana continued to pursue policies that encouraged economic growth, with a further objective of cutting poverty levels. A referendum held in April 2007 strengthened his hold on power as voters supported his calls for a strong presidency with increasing constitutional powers. The National Assembly was dissolved in July in preparation for elections in September, in which the president’s I Love Madagascar party won a stunning victory with 106 seats.