I.

Introduction

Pottery, vessels and other articles made of clay that is permanently hardened by firing in a kiln. The nature and type of pottery is determined by the composition of the clay and the way it is prepared; the temperature at which it is fired; and the glazes used. The main types of clay fall roughly into the categories of earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain.

II.

Types, Procedures, and Techniques

Earthenware is porous pottery, usually fired at the lower kiln temperatures of c. 900°-1150° C (1652°-2102° F). Depending on the clay used, it turns buff, red, brown, or black when fired. To be made waterproof, it must be glazed. Nearly all ancient, medieval, Middle Eastern, and European painted ceramics are earthenware, as is much contemporary household dinnerware. Stoneware, water-resistant and much more durable, is fired at temperatures of 1200°-1300° C (2191°-2372° F). The clay turns white, buff, grey, or red and is glazed for aesthetic reasons. (Pottery fired at about 1150°-1200° C (2102°-2191° F) is sometimes called middle-fire ware; its earthenware or stoneware traits vary from clay to clay.) Stoneware was made by the Chinese in antiquity and became known in northern Europe after the Renaissance. Porcelain, first used by the Chinese, is also high-fired at 1280°-1300°C (2336°-2372° F) and becomes white, vitreous, and translucent.

A.

Preparing and Shaping the Clay

The potter can remove some of the coarse foreign matter natural to secondary clays, or it can be used in various quantities for different effects. A certain amount of coarse grain in the clay helps the vessel retain its shape during firing, and potters using fine-grained clays often “temper” the clay by adding coarser materials such as sand or grog (fired and pulverized clay) before kneading the clay into workable condition. The plasticity of clay allows pottery to be shaped in several traditional ways. The clay can be flattened and then shaped by being pressed against the inside or outside of a mould—a stone or basket, or a clay or plaster form. Liquid clay, known as casting slip, can be poured into plaster moulds. A pot can be coil built: clay is rolled between the palms of the hands and extended into long coils, a coil is formed into a ring, and the pot is built up by superimposed rings. Also, a ball of clay can be pinched into a desired shape. The most sophisticated pottery-making technique is wheel throwing.

The potter's wheel, invented in the 4th millennium bc, is a flat disc that revolves horizontally on a pivot. Both hands—one on the inside and the other on the outside of the clay—are free to shape the pot from a ball of clay that is placed at the centre of the rotating wheel head. Some wheels are set in motion by a stick that fits into a notch in the wheel (often activated by an assistant); called a handwheel, this is the classical wheel of Japanese potters. In 16th-century Europe, with the addition of a flywheel separate from the wheel head and mounted in a frame, the potter could control the wheel by kicking the flywheel. A kick bar, or foot treadle, was added in the 19th century. In the 20th century the electric wheel with a variable-speed motor allowed greater and more regulated rotating speed.

B.

Drying and Firing

To fire without breaking, the clay must first be air dried. If the clay is thoroughly dry, porous, relatively soft pottery can be baked directly in an open fire, at temperatures of 650°-750° C (1202°-1382° F); primitive pottery is still made in this way. The first kilns were used in the 6th millennium bc. Wood fuels—and, later, coal, gas, and electricity—have always required careful control to produce the desired effect in hardening the clay into earthenware or stoneware. Different effects are achieved by oxidizing the flames (giving them adequate ventilation, producing a great flame) or by reducing the oxygen by partially obstructing the entrance of air into the kiln. For example, a clay high in iron will typically turn red in an oxidizing fire, whereas in a reducing fire it will turn grey or black; in reduction firing the clay's red iron oxide (FeO₂, or with two molecules, Fe₂O₄) is chemically converted to black iron oxide (Fe ₂O₃) as the pot gives up an atom of oxygen to the oxygen-starved fire.

C.

Decoration

A pot can be decorated before or after firing. When the clay is half dry and somewhat stiffened (“leather hard”), bits of clay can be pressed into the pot; the body can be incised, stamped, or pressed with lines and other patterns; or clay can be cut out and the body pierced. The vessel walls can be smoothed by burnishing, or polishing, so that rough particles are driven inwards and the clay particles are aligned in such a way that the vessel surface is shiny and smooth. (Some clays can be polished after firing.) Slip (liquefied clay strained of coarse particles) may be used: the bone-dry (completely dry) or half-dry pot can be dipped into slip of creamy consistency (to which colour is sometimes added); or the slip can be brushed on or trailed on with a spouted can or a syringe. Designs can be drawn with a pointed tool that scratches through the slip to reveal the body, a technique known as sgraffito.

D.

Glazes

Historically, unglazed pottery has always been more common than glazed pottery. Glaze is a form of glass, consisting basically of glass-forming minerals (silica or boron) combined with stiffeners (such as clay, which contains alumina) and fluxes, which are melting agents (such as lead or soda). In raw form, glaze can be applied either to the unfired pot or after an initial unglazed, or biscuit, firing. The pot is then glaze fired; the glaze ingredients must melt and become glasslike at a temperature that is compatible to that required for the clay. Many kinds of glazes are used. Some heighten the colour of the body; others mask it. Alkaline glazes, popular in the Middle East, are shiny and frequently transparent. They are composed mostly of silica (such as sand) and a form of soda (such as nitre). Lead glazes are transparent, with traditional types made of sand fused with sulphide or lead oxide. They were used on earthenware by Roman, Chinese, and medieval European potters and are still employed on European earthenware. Tin glazes, opaque and white, were introduced by medieval Islamic potters and were used for Spanish lustreware, Italian maiolica, and European faience and delftware.

Metal oxides give colour to glazes. Copper will make a lead glaze turn green and an alkaline glaze turquoise; a reduction kiln will cause the copper to turn red. Iron can produce yellow, brown, grey-green, blue, or, with certain minerals, red. Feldspars (natural rocks of aluminosilicates) are used in stoneware and porcelain glazes because they fuse only at high temperatures. The effects of specific glazes on certain clay bodies depend both on the composition of each and on the potter's control of the glaze kiln.

E.

Underglaze and Overglaze Decoration

Pottery can also be painted before and after firing. In Neolithic times, ochres and other earth pigments were used on unglazed ware. Metal oxides used in or under glazes require somewhat higher temperatures in order to fix the colours to the glaze or body—they include copper green, cobalt blue, manganese purple, and antimony yellow. If enamels (fine-ground pigments applied over a fired glaze) are used, the pot must be refired in a muffle (covered, indirect-flame) kiln at low temperatures to fuse the enamel and glaze. Transfer prints (designs printed on paper with oxides and, while wet, transferred to the pot, the paper burning away in the firing) are often used to decorate commercially manufactured pottery. In the 18th century the print plate was hand engraved, but now lithography and photography are used.

Potters' marks were used to identify ware in China from the 15th century on, and in Europe from the 18th, and famous pottery marks have always been easily forged. Greek potters and painters signed their work, as is true of a few Islamic potters and most 20th-century potters.

III.

East Asia

The leading pottery centres in East Asian history were China, Korea, and Japan.

A.

China

In Neolithic China, pottery was made by coil building and then beating the shapes with a paddle; towards the end of the period (2nd millennium bc) vessels were handbuilt, then finished on a wheel. At Gansu, in north-western China, vessels from the Pan-shan culture, made from finely textured clay and fired to buff or reddish-brown, were brush painted with mineral pigments in designs of strong S-shaped lines converging on circles. They date from 2600 bc. The early Chinese kiln was the simple updraft type; the fire was made below the ware, and vents in the floor allowed the flames and heat to rise. Longshan pottery, from the central plains, was shaped on the wheel. Chinese Neolithic vessels include a wide variety of shapes—tripods, ewers, urns, cups, amphorae, and deep goblets.

A.1.

The Shang Period

The Neolithic prototypes became the basis for bronze vessels during the Shang period (c. 1766-c. 1027 bc), and Shang ceramic moulds for bronze casting, made of high-quality clay, have been found. Shang pottery was of four basic types, most of them found at the capital at Anyang, in present-day Henan Province. The first continued the Neolithic functional tradition in coarse grey clay, decorated with impressed cords or in incised geometric patterns; the second consisted of dark grey imitations of bronze vessels; the third, white pottery with finely carved decoration resembling bronze designs; the last, glazed stoneware.

A.2.

Zhou Period to Six Dynasties

Except for the white pottery, all the Shang types continued in the Zhou period (c. 1027-256 bc). Coarse red earthenware with lead glazes was introduced in the Warring States era (403-221 bc); this ware too resembled bronzes. In the south, stoneware with a pale brown glaze was fashioned into sophisticated shapes.

The discovery in 1974 of the terracotta army of Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of the Qin dynasty (221-206 bc)—an imperial bodyguard of more than 6,000 life-size soldiers and horses buried in military formation—added new dimensions to modern knowledge of the art of the ancient Chinese potters. These handsome idealized portraits, each with different details of dress, were modelled from coarse grey clay, with heads and hands fired separately at high earthenware temperatures and attached later. The assembled figures were painted with bright mineral pigments (a procedure called cold decoration), most of which have now flaked.

Tomb figures and objects with moulded and painted decoration continued to be made in the Han dynasty (206 bc- ad 220); these included houses, human figures, and even stoves. Bricks were sometimes decorated with scenes of everyday animal and human activity. Also produced were grey stoneware with a thick green glaze, and reddish earthenware.

During the Six Dynasties period (ad 220-589), celadon stoneware, a precursor of later porcelain celadons, began to appear. (Celadons are transparent iron-pigmented glazes fired in a reduction kiln and yielding grey, pale blue or green, or brownish-olive.) Called Yue (or green) ware, they were less influenced than earlier pottery by the shapes of cast bronzes. Jars, ewers, and dishes became more delicate in line and classical in contour, and some had simple incised or moulded ornament.

A.3.

Tang and Song Dynasties

Tomb figures and stoneware continued to be made during the Tang dynasty (618-907), showing stylistic influences from Central Asia. Bowls and basins with carved decoration were exported to India, South East Asia, and the Muslim Empire. Two important ceramic types, however, characterized this period. One was a fine, white earthenware covered with a lead glaze of glowing yellow and green tints, often in mottled patterns. The other, the most significant innovation of the Tang potters, was porcelain—made into thin, delicate bowls and vases with clear, bluish or greenish glazes.

Porcelain was further refined in the Song dynasty (960-1279), the age in which all art flourished, and the greatest era of Chinese ceramics (see Porcelain: Oriental Porcelain).

B.

Korea

Chinese pottery and porcelain always exerted a strong influence in Korea, but Korean potters introduced subtle variations on Chinese models. Grey stoneware, found in tombs, was typical of the Silla dynasty (57 bc-ad 935). Song-influenced celadons characterize pottery of the Koryo dynasty (918-1392). Later work, although less refined, was admired for its straightforward dignity. Koreans, in turn, introduced their own and Chinese pottery into Japan.

C.

Japan

The earliest ceramics of Neolithic Japan, those from the Jōmon period (c. 10-c. 300 bc), were shaped by hand, usually by the coil method. Decorated with impressions of cords and mats, they were baked in an open fire at a low temperature. Colours were reddish or ranged from grey to black. Some cult figures and utilitarian vessels were highly burnished or covered with a red iron oxide. The pottery of the Yayoi culture (c. 300 bc-c. ad 250), made by a Mongol people who came from Korea to Kyushu, has been found throughout Japan. The Yayoi used the wheel for their yellow and light brown earthenware, the smooth surface of which was at times painted bright red.

Two basic kiln types—both still in use—were employed in Japan by this time. The bank, or climbing, kiln, of Korean origin, is built into the slope of a mountain, with as many as 20 chambers; firing can take up to two weeks. In the updraft, or bottle, kiln, a wood fire at the mouth of a covered trench fires the pots, which are in a circular-walled chamber at the end of the fire trench; the top is covered except for a hole to let the smoke escape.

From the later Kofun, or Tumulus (Grave Mound), period (c. ad 250-552), pottery was found in the enormous tombs of the Japanese emperors. Called Haji ware, it resembled Yayoi pottery. More truly unique were the haniwa, delightful unglazed reddish earthenware figures that surrounded the tombs—houses, boats, animals, women, hunters, musicians, and warriors. Although the haniwa lack the grandeur of the Qin emperor's army, they compensate for it with their rustic vitality. Sué was another pottery of this period, a grey stoneware fired in a climbing kiln and decorated with a natural ash glaze (one formed during the firing as ash from the wood fuel fell on the pots). Originating in Korea, the natural ash glaze became characteristic of later Japanese wares made at Tamba, Tokoname, Bizen, and Shigaraki. Jars, bottles, dishes, and cups were made, some with sculpted figures. Sué ware continued to be made in the Asuka period (552-710), when Chinese cultural and religious influences were just beginning.

C.1.

Nara to Kamakura Periods

With the Nara period (710-784), Japan's first historical epoch, the full impact of Tang China ware became obvious in Japan's production of high-fire pottery. Some glazes were monochromatic green or yellowish-brown; some were two-colour, green and white; a few had three of these colours on rough greyish bodies. The glaze patterns were streaks and spots, not quite as refined as Tang ceramics. Most examples of this work are preserved at the Shosoin imperial treasury at Nara.

In the early Heian period (794-894), natural ash glazes were further developed, and celadons were introduced to Japan. Then, because of disruptions in relations with China in the late Heian, or Fujiwara, period (894-1185), the quality of the pottery declined. Once contact with Song China was renewed in the Kamakura period (1185-1333), the ceramics industry flourished, this time centred at Seto, near Nagoya. Ki-seto, or yellow Seto—still made today—was influenced by the popular Song celadons; the Japanese equivalents, however, were fired in oxidizing kilns, which gave their glazes yellow and amber hues. Tokoname, a rustic pottery for everyday use, was also made in the Fujiwara period, as were other types that retain their primitive appeal.

C.2.

Muromachi and Momoyama Periods

Although the Ashikaga shoguns of the Muromachi period (1338-1568) did not encourage ceramic arts, the Chinese-influenced tradition of the tea ceremony, which began at that time, stimulated the manufacture of the beautiful vessels used in this elaborate ritual. The cult of the tea ceremony spread to the military and merchant classes in the Momoyama period (1573-1603). Its stoneware and porcelain vessels reflected the tasteful, subtle beauty and elegance of the ceremony. Each shape had a specific function and name.

One sought-after variety of stoneware tea bowl, related to the Chien ware of China, was temmoku, with a thick purplish-brown glaze that is still popular. Seto kilns produced such fine pottery that the works of other kilns also came to be called Seto ware. Even more famous were the Raku wares, still made today by the 14th generation of the same family. Raku ware—tea ceremony vessels, other pottery, and tiles—is shaped by hand; its irregular forms follow a prescribed aesthetic of asymmetry. The glaze is brushed on in several thin layers, and the pot is fired at low temperatures. When the glaze is molten, the pot is pulled from the kiln with tongs; it cools quickly, and the glaze crackles under the thermal shock. Raku ware is admired by potters throughout the world for its rugged shapes and soft, sombre lead glazes that sometimes run downwards in thick drops. Also prized for the tea ceremony was Oribe ware, typified by brown iron-oxide painted designs derived from motifs of textile decoration, juxtaposed with an irregular splash of runny, transparent green glaze.

Another Momoyama ware was Karatsu, influenced by Korean Yi ware. In e-Karatsu (“picture” Karatsu), freehand geometric patterns, grasses, and wisteria were painted in iron oxide on a whitish slip. Karatsu ware had several other styles, with different kinds of decoration. Bizen ware was at its best in the Momoyama period. Still made, it is a hard stoneware, basically brick red, but subject to irregular changes of colour resulting from alternating oxidation and reduction in the firing. It is unglazed except for glaze formed by ash or straw packed around the pots in the kiln or by falling ash.

C.3.

The Edo Period and After

At the beginning of the Edo period, kaolin was discovered near Arita, in northern Kyushu, still a major pottery centre. This discovery enabled Japanese potters to make their own hard, pure white porcelain. One type, Imari ware (named after its export port), was so popular in 17th-century Europe that even the Chinese imitated it. Its brightly coloured designs were inspired by ornate lacquer work, screens, and textiles. By the late Edo period (1800-1867) Imari ware had declined. Kakiemon (persimmon) porcelain, made in Arita, was a far more refined, classically shaped ware, even when its motifs were similar to Imari ware. Both wares used overglaze enamels. Nabeshima ware, also of high quality and similar to silk textiles in its designs, was reserved for members of that family and their friends; only in the Meiji era (1868-1912) was it sold commercially and imitated. The designs were first drawn on thin tissue, and then in underglaze blue lines; the enamel colours were added and heat fused after the glaze firing. In eastern Japan in the Edo period, Kutani was the porcelain centre. Kutani vessels were greyish because of impurities in the clay, and their designs were bolder than those of Arita and Imari wares. Kyoto, formerly a centre for enamelled pottery, became famous for its porcelain in the 19th century. In the Edo period, some 10,000 kilns were active in Japan. See also Porcelain: Oriental Porcelain

The utilitarian works of folk potters, evaluated by contemporary taste, are as admired and respected as the export items of earlier centuries. New influences from Europe came with the Meiji pottery, but native folk traditions were still appreciated within the country. Potters at the old centres remain active at the start of the 21st century, working in the same styles as their ancestors, with the same local clays. Japan's most famous 20th-century potter is Shoji Hamada, important not only for his pottery but also as a forceful figure in the revival of folkcraft. Hamada favoured iron and ash glazes on stoneware, producing shades of olive green, grey, brown, and black, and did not sign his pots (although he signed their wooden containers). In 1955 the Japanese government declared Hamada a Living National Treasure.

IV.

Pre-Columbian Americas

Ancient American pottery—used not only for domestic puposes but also in ritual and funerary contexts—developed distinctive, sophisticated shapes and decorative styles, wholly unrelated to those of the Old World and executed to a high artistic level. Pots were built by coiling, hand modelling, and moulding; the potter's wheel was unknown. Painted decoration was in clay slips coloured with vegetable and mineral pigments.

A.

South America

Pottery dating from about 3200 bc has been found at Ecuadorian sites, but the foremost styles appeared in Peru. There, the Chavín style (fl. 800-400 bc), with its jaguar motifs, was succeeded in the Classic period (1st millennium ad) by one of the finest pre-Columbian potteries, that of the Mochica culture of the north coast. Moulded buff-coloured vases were painted in red with vivid narrative scenes; portraitlike jars were modelled in relief with great subtlety. Both had the characteristic Peruvian stirrup spout, a hollow handle with a central vertical spout. To the south the Nazca culture produced double-spouted polychrome jars with complex stylized animal motifs. The later Tiahuanacu and Inca polychrome styles were well crafted but were less dazzling.

B.

Middle America

The earliest domestic Mexican ceramics come from the Formative period (1500-1000 bc) in the Valley of Mexico. On the Gulf coast the Olmec culture produced hollow, naturalistic figurines. During the Classic period, pottery figurines from the east showed lively freedom of expression; those from the west were often grouped in impressionistic scenes of daily life. At Teotihuacán in the central plateau, polychrome three-footed vessels were produced in moulds. In the Post-Classic era the Toltecs occupied the central plateau, producing typical ceramics painted red on cream or orange on buff. Later, the Aztecs first assimilated earlier abstract decoration, then turned to producing red and orange bowls ornamented with birds and other life forms. Farther south, the Zapotecs and Mixtecs resisted Aztec influence. Besides modelled figures of animals, humans, and gods, they made a highly burnished polychrome ware that influenced later Mexican pottery.

Maya ware attained a variety and quality unique in Mesoamerican ceramics. Maya ware of the Classic era includes delicate figurines, polychrome cylindrical vases with scenes and glyphs resembling those in Maya manuscripts, and plaques containing whistles, with moulded and modelled scenes of everyday life.

C.

North America

In the Mississippi Valley the Mound Builders of the 1st millennium bc produced painted, modelled, and incised ware. In the Southwest fine pottery was made by the ancestors of the Pueblo peoples—notably the red-on-buff ware (c. ad 600-900) of the Hohokam and the polychrome ware (1300 and later) of the Anasazi, both adorned with human and animal figures; and the delightful, distinctive Mimbres pottery (1000-1200) of the Mogollon culture, with black-on-white geometric designs, birds, bats, frogs, and ceremonial scenes. The ancient tradition has been carried on into modern Pueblo pottery, notably in the work of Maria Martinez, who is widely known for her burnished black ware.

V.

Western Pottery

The historical styles of Western pottery include those of the ancient Middle East and Mediterranean as well as those of the medieval Muslim world and medieval and modern Europe.

A.

Ancient Middle East

The earliest Middle Eastern pottery yet discovered comes from Çatal Hüyük, in Anatolia, and dates from 6500 bc. In addition to terracotta cult statues and painted clay statuettes, the ware from this site (near modern Çumra, Turkey) includes pieces painted in red ochre on a body covered with cream slip. Other pottery was monochromatic—buff, light grey, beige, or brick red. It was coil built and paddled, then burnished; some pots were incised with simple horizontal lines. The ware was fired either in a bread oven or in a closed kiln with a separate firing chamber. Other Neolithic pottery from the Middle East, primarily from Syria, had impressed designs or was combed with the edge of a cardium shell.

A.1.

Persia and Mesopotamia

The earliest painted ceramics of northern Mesopotamia date from just before the 5th millennium bc. At Samarra, stylized human and animal figures were painted with colours ranging from red to brown and black on a buff background. Shortly thereafter, polychrome pottery of higher quality was made at Tell Halaf, where potters had learned more thorough control of their kilns.

At about the same time, Persian potters painted geometric designs on pots covered with light-coloured slip. By the 4th millennium the potter's wheel was in use. People from the north migrated to Persia and introduced red and grey monochromatic pottery. At the height of the Ubaid period (4th millennium bc) a pottery industry around Susa produced many drinking vessels and bowls from refined clay. Coated with a greenish-yellow slip, they were decorated in a free style with painted geometric shapes, plants, birds, other animals, and stick-figure people.

Glazed pottery began to be produced about 1500 bc. The finest Mesopotamian ceramic work was not in domestic pottery, but rather in glazed brickwork used for architectural ornamentation. The tradition began in the 3rd millennium at Erech (Uruk) where columns and niches were covered with a geometric mosaic of coloured nail-like ceramic cones. In Babylonia during the Kassite rule (mid-2nd millennium bc), unglazed terracotta was used to face temples and palaces. Later, at Khorsabad, the capital of the Assyrian monarch Sargon II (reigned 722-705 bc), a temple entrance was decorated with moulded glazed brickwork depicting animals in procession. This tradition reached its climax in Babylon in the 6th century bc. There the famous processional way was lined with glazed bricks on which more than 700 bulls, dragons, and lions were carved and moulded, then glazed in a palette ranging from white to yellow to brownish-black against a blue or greenish-blue ground. The façade of the royal throne room was decorated with lions on walls and with columns crowned and surrounded by stylized palmettes and lotus buds.

A.2.

Egypt

In the 5th millennium bc Egyptian potters made graceful, thin, dark, highly polished ware with subtle cord decoration. The painted ware of the 4th millennium, with geometric and animal figures on red, brown, and buff bodies, was not of the same high standard. Dynastic Egypt was famous for its faience (not the same as the later European ceramics of that name). First made about 2000 bc, it is a non-clay, self–glazing body composed of powdered quartz or sand, and soluble alkalis of soda or potash often characterized by a brilliant turquoise glassy surface. Egyptian artisans made faience beads and jewellery, elegant cups, scarabs, and ushabti (small servant figures buried with the dead).

B.

The Mediterranean, Greece, and Rome

Pottery from the islands of the Mediterranean and Aegean during the late Bronze Age (1500-1050 bc) and early Iron Age (1050-750 bc), especially from Crete and Cyprus, shows great imagination on the part of the artists, who painted bichrome ware with geometric, abstract, and figurative designs. At times, pottery shapes were fanciful and seemingly non-functional, at other times quite delicate in vessels used for ointments and cosmetics.

B.1.

Greece

The fashioning and painting of ceramics was a major art in Classical Greece. Native clay was shaped easily on the wheel, and each distinct form had a name and a specific function in Greek society and ceremonial: the amphora was a tall, two-handled storage vessel for wine, corn, oil, or honey; the hydria, a three-handled water jug; the lecythus, an oil flask with a long, narrow neck, for funeral offerings; the kylix, a double-handled drinking cup on a foot; the oenochoe, a wine jug with a pinched lip; the krater, a large bowl for mixing wine and water. Undecorated black pottery was used throughout Greek and Hellenistic times, the forms being related either to those of decorated pottery or those of metalwork. Both styles influenced Roman ceramics.

Even in the Bronze Age, the Greeks took advantage of oxidizing and reduction kilns to produce a shiny black slip on a cream, brownish, or orange-buff body, the shade depending on the type of clay. At first, decorative designs were abstract. By the Middle Bronze Age (2000-1500 bc), however, stylized forms from nature appeared. By the Late Bronze Age, plants, sea creatures, and fanciful animals were painted on pots of well-conceived shape by the Mycenaeans, who were initially influenced by Cretan potters. Athenian geometric style replaced the Mycenaean about 1000 bc and declined by the 6th century bc. Large kraters in the Geometric style, with bands of ornament, warriors, and processional figures laid out in horizontal registers, were found at the Dipylon cemetery of Athens; they date from about 750 bc.

Attic potters introduced black-figure ware in the early 6th century. Painted black forms adorned the polished red clay ground, with detail rendered by incising through the black. White and reddish-purple were added to depict garments and for skin tones. Depictions of processions and chariots continued; animals and hybrid beasts (particularly in the Orientalizing phase that followed the Geometric period) were also shown, at times surrounded by geometric or vegetal motifs. Such decoration was always well integrated with the vessel shapes, and the iconography of Greek mythology can be identified. Beginning in the 6th century, the decoration stressed humans far more than animals. Recurring themes include people and gods at work, battles, and banquets; musicians; weddings and other ceremonies; and women at play or dressing. In some cases, events or heroes are named. Mythological and literary scenes became more frequent. Potters' and painters' names and styles have been identified, even when they did not sign their works.

Red-figure pottery first appeared about 530 bc, becoming especially popular between 510 and 430. The background was painted black, and the figures were left in reserve on the red-brown clay surface; details on the figures were painted in black, which allowed the artist greater freedom in drawing. The paint could also be diluted for modulating the colour. Secondary colours of red and white were less used; gold was sometimes added for details of metal and jewellery. Anatomy was rendered more realistically, and after 480, so were nuances of gesture and expression. Although Athens and Corinth were centres for red-figure pottery, the style also spread to the Greek islands. By the 4th century bc, however, it declined in quality. Another Greek style featured outline drawing on a white ground, with added colours imitating monumental painting; these vessels, however, were impractical for domestic use.

B.2.

Rome

The Romans admired highly polished red-gloss earthenware—possibly in reaction against Greek and Hellenistic black pottery. The red-gloss technique developed in the eastern Mediterranean in the late Hellenistic period. This ware was made by dipping the pot in a suspension of fine particles of high-silica clay (which gave a higher gloss when polished) and firing it in an oxidizing kiln. Decoration took the form of raised designs: the pots were formed in clay moulds that had been impressed along the edges with roulettes in repeat motifs, stamped with other designs and figures, and given further details that were hand-carved in the mould—hence the term terra sigillata (“stamped earth”) for this ware. (The term is often also applied by extension to the clay suspension in which the pots were dipped.) Many designs and shapes were inspired by metalwork and cut glass. Arretium (modern Arezzo) was the centre for red-gloss ware with relief decoration, and the best of this pottery, from the 1st centuries bc and ad, is thus called Arretine ware. Several areas of the Roman Empire made Arretine ware, but as manufacture moved farther from the capital, the quality of the red-gloss ware declined. The best was from southern France from the 1st century ad.

The black-gloss ware that the Greeks had made also spread through the Roman Empire. In England it resembled Celtic metalwork. At times the wet clay was pinched out to create a dotted effect; other pots were decorated with white slip or pigment. Roman potters also made lead glazes, a procedure that enabled them to add metal oxides for colour. Lead-glazed earthenware became the major pottery of medieval Europe.

C.

Islamic Pottery

The first Muslim potters of the Umayyad dynasty (ad 661-750) inherited the traditions of the Middle East: the blue- and green-glazed quartz fritwares known in Egypt since Roman times; the alkaline-glazed pottery of Syria, Mesopotamia, and Iran, known since Achaemenid times (6th-4th century bc); and the Roman lead-glazed ware, continued by Byzantine potters. Three successive waves of Chinese influence inspired change in Islamic pottery: in the 9th-11th century, Tang stoneware; in the 12th-14th century, Song white ware; and in the 15th-19th century, Ming blue-and-white ware.

C.1.

Medieval Arabic Styles

In the 9th century, caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty encouraged local artisans to imitate imported Tang pottery with local clay and glazes. The Arab potters soon developed their own style—first in unglazed pottery with moulded, stamped, and applied-relief decoration, then in underglaze sgraffito designs and in opaque white tin-glazed bowls with painted flowers and inscriptions, and finally in lustre painting. Lustreware is earthenware with an opaque white tin glaze, fired once, then painted with metallic pigments and refired in a reduction kiln. The designs reflected metallic hues of red, bronze, lime, and yellow.

When potters migrated from Iraq to the western Muslim world in the 10th century, the lustre technique moved with them. As with tin glazes, lustreware ultimately influenced Europe by way of Moorish Spain. It was also popular in Fatimid Egypt (969-1171) and Iran.

C.2.

Iran and Turkey

The Seljuk dynasty that ruled Iran, Iraq, Asia Minor, and Syria in the 12th and 13th centuries found substitutes for porcelain, and the Iranian cities of Rayy and Kāshān became centres for this white ware. Another fine Seljuk type was Mina'i ware, an enamel-overglaze pottery that, in its delicacy, imitated illuminated manuscripts. Kāshān potters, after the 13th-century Mongol conquests, used green glazes influenced by Chinese celadons. Cobalt-blue glazes appeared in Iran in the 9th century, later falling from use. They were taken up again in the 14th to the 18th century in response to the popularity of blue-and-white ware with Chinese and European clients.

İznik was the centre for Turkish pottery. There slip-painted pieces influenced by Persian and Afghanistani ware pre-dated the Ottoman Turks' conquest of the region. Later, between 1490 and 1700, İznik ware displayed decorations painted under a thin transparent glaze on a loose-textured white body; the classic İznik palette consisted of turquoise, strong blue, purple, and green with accents of iron red slip. Later designs were in shades of cobalt blue in imitation of the Chinese Ming ware.

During the Safavid dynasty, Kubachi ware, contemporary to İznik pottery, was probably made in north-western Iran, and not at the town of Kubachi where it was found. Characteristic Kubachi pieces were large polychrome plates, painted underneath their crackle glazes. Gombroon ware, exported from that Persian Gulf port to Europe and the Far East in the 16th and 17th centuries, had incised decorations on translucent white earthenware bodies. Copper-coloured Persian lustreware was fashionable in the 17th century, as was polychrome painted ware.

In general, Islamic pottery was either thrown or made in moulds. Shapes were either Chinese-inspired or were the basic shapes of metalwork. In addition to lustreware, the most creative work was the manufacture of tiles for mosques.

D.

Europe to 1800

Islamic tin-glazed pottery and lustreware became the ceramics of Spain from the 13th through to the 15th century. At times called Hispano-Moresque ware, it had its centre of manufacture at the Valencian town of Manises. It was exported from Majorca, and thus the extremely popular Italian Renaissance ceramics that it influenced were known as maiolica, from the Italian name for Majorca.

D.1.

Maiolica, Faience, and Delftware

In maiolica, painting over the white glaze was further developed, in yellow, orange, green, turquoise, blue, purplish-brown, and black. Frequently a transparent overglaze was added, as well as incised and moulded-relief decoration. Made in many Italian cities in the 15th to 16th century, this ware bore little resemblance to its Spanish namesake. After 1600 the name faience was applied to the French variation of this tin-glazed ware, as well as to 16th- and 17th-century French and Belgian maiolica-influenced pottery. In Germany, where it flourished until the 18th century, it was called fayence. After the centre of its manufacture shifted from Antwerp to Delft in the mid-17th century, the name delftware, even for its English variation, came into use. English delftware was made in London, Liverpool, and Bristol and in Dublin, until creamware (see Stoneware and Lead-Glazed Earthenware, below) began to replace it in the 1770s.

Tin-glazed ware remained popular in Europe until the early 19th century. It was made by dipping the biscuit-fired pot into a basic lead glaze to which tin oxide (an opacifier and whitener) had been added. This produced a dense white that completely hid the colour of the clay body, providing a surface for painting any glaze colour successful at earthenware temperatures. Silver and gold were used for Spanish lustreware, painted over the fired glaze and refired in a low-temperature reduction kiln. In the 18th century, the fired tin glaze was painted with overglaze enamels and the pottery refired in a muffle kiln.

Efforts to imitate Ming porcelain, which was flooding into Europe from China in the first half of the 17th century, resulted in the golden age of delftware (1630-1700). The pottery became thinner, its decoration more delicate. Colour combinations were either shades of cobalt blue or manganese purple outlines with blue infills. Tiles, plates, jugs, and vases were made, and the different Delft factory marks were imitated, even by the Chinese.

D.2.

Stoneware and Lead-Glazed Earthenware

European stoneware was developed in Germany at the end of the 14th century. It was salt-glazed: common salt (an alkali) was thrown into the kiln, and soda from the salt combined with silica in the body to form a glassy layer on the pot's surface. Hafner ware, a lead-glazed earthenware, was popular in the 16th and 17th centuries, with many vessels imitating metal jugs and tankards. Traditional English earthenware was decorated with slips and lead glazed, as was central European peasant pottery, taken to America by emigrants.

English stoneware was made on a large scale only after the late 17th century. The best of Staffordshire white salt-glazed stoneware was made between 1720 and 1760. Staffordshire was also a centre for creamware, a popular lead-glazed earthenware made of Devonshire white clay mixed with calcined flint. In 1754 the English ceramist Josiah Wedgwood began to experiment with coloured creamware. He established his own factory, but often worked with others who did transfer printing (introduced by the Worcester Porcelain Company in the 1750s). He also produced red stoneware; basalt ware, an unglazed black stoneware; and jasperware, made of white stoneware clay that had been coloured by the addition of metal oxides. Jasperware was usually ornamented with white relief portraits or Greek Classical scenes. Wedgwood's greatest contribution to European ceramics, however, was his fine pearlware, an extremely pale creamware with a bluish tint to its glaze.

E.

19th and 20th Centuries

Inexpensive transfer-printed wares for mass sale were popular in 19th-century England and on the Continent, as were relief-decorated wares. These spread to the United States, along with the manganese-brown Rockingham glazes developed in England in the early 19th century; the latter were popular with New Jersey and Ohio potteries. Mass-produced ware gradually displaced the dominant US folk pottery, a vigorous, salt-glazed stoneware.

Industrial ceramics after 1860 were of high quality. Art Nouveau, the Paris Exhibition of 1900, and the Bauhaus in the 1920s all influenced industrial ceramic design.

The individual studio or artist potter has been as important to the history of modern pottery as the industrial potter. England's Arts and Crafts Movement had its impact after 1861, as did the salt-glazed stoneware of the Doulton factories in Lambeth after 1871. In the United States the Rookwood factory (1880, Cincinnati, Ohio), the Grueby Faience Company (1897, Boston), and the Pewabic Pottery Works (1900, Detroit) brought prestige to the artist-potter. In France, artists such as Pierre Auguste Renoir, Henri Matisse, and André Derain, in collaboration with a pottery workshop, created bright and painterly ceramic decoration. These came to the attention of Roger Fry, who founded the Omega Group in London in 1913 and employed artists such as Duncan Grant and Vanessa Bell in the designing and making of pottery. Bernard Leach, ultimately responsible for the revival of studio pottery in Britain, went to Japan to learn Japanese methods of making pottery. He returned to St Ives in the 1920s to set up his own pottery, working with high-fired stoneware, and promoting oriental methods and aesthetics, and a holistic approach to art and life. The influence of Leach and his pupils, who included Michael Cardew and Katharine Pleydell-Bouverie, was far-reaching and dominated the domestic pottery scene for many years.

There was a generally felt desire for change after the dull utilitarianism of the World War II period, and imaginative designs with a more varied colour palette began to appear in studio pottery. Catalysts for change came from the influences of Pablo Picasso, Scandinavian design, and Mediterranean food and culture. Dora Billington, who taught ceramics at the Central School of Art, was instrumental in the formation of a new breed of potter, more in tune with contemporary urban design and architecture, their style based on a much broader knowledge of ceramic techniques than that promoted by Leach. William Newland, Margaret Hine, and Nicholas Vergette exemplified this new attitude to ceramics. Evidence of a very different aesthetic can be seen in the work of Lucie Rie and Hans Coper, two major figures in post-war ceramics who settled in London in the late 1930s. The influence of the Bauhaus is manifest in the austere and formal simplicity of their work. In the United States, Peter Voulkos and Paul Soldner brought a new relaxed freedom to ceramics in the mood of the prevailing Abstract Expressionist fine art movement.

By the 1970s in England, a group of potters was beginning to turn to a more exploratory, referential, and sometimes ironic approach to ceramics, as embodied in the so-called “abstract vessel”. Alison Britton, Elizabeth Fritsch, Angus Suttie, Gordon Baldwin, and Richard Slee among others, were reworking the tradition of ceramics, making hand-built, vessel-based but increasingly abstract pieces, more metaphorical than functional. Their influence is still very powerful in contemporary ceramics, moving ceramics into an ambiguous middle-ground between pottery and fine art. Within the field of wheel-thrown ceramics, trends toward refinement and still-life groupings can be discerned in the work of Walter Keeler, Takeshi Yasuda, Gwyn Hanssen Pigott, and Edmund de Waal. In contrast, there is also renewed interest in “primitive” hand-built forms and processes, as in the work of Gabriele Koch and Lawson Oyekan.