I.

Introduction

Lesotho, formerly Basutoland, small, land-locked monarchy within South Africa. The kingdom of Lesotho is mainly mountainous and has a total area of 30,355 sq km (11,720 sq mi). The capital of Lesotho is Maseru.

II.

Land and Resources

In the west, rolling lowlands occupy about one third of the country, varying in height from about 1,525 to 1,830 m (5,000 to 6,000 ft) above sea level. They provide most of the cultivable land in Lesotho, although their soils are poorer than those of the uplands. The land rises eastward through foothills to the mountains, which occupy two thirds of the country and reach heights of more than 3,350 m (11,000 ft) on the eastern border with South Africa. The Drakensberg run north-east to east; the Mulati Mountains, north-east to south-west. The Orange River has its source in the highlands of Lesotho.

A.

Climate

The climate is mainly temperate, with seasonal and daily extremes of heat and cold. In the lowlands maximum temperatures vary between 32.2° C (90° F) in summer to -6.7° C (20° F) in winter; average temperatures are 25° C (77° F) and 15° C (59° F) respectively. The average and extreme ranges are wider in the highlands. In the winter frosts are common in the lowlands, and snowfalls are frequent in the highlands. Rainfall, which occurs predominantly between October and April, averages about 760 mm (30 in) a year in the lowlands and 1,905 mm (75 in) in the highlands. Droughts are common.

B.

Natural Resources and Environmental Concerns

Much of Lesotho is permanent pasture, and there is a problem of erosion arising from unrestricted grazing. The low organic content means that much of the soil lacks fertility, and population growth is adding to the pressure on agricultural land. While there are no forests in Lesotho, some reforestation has occurred. However, this is not enough to keep pace with the growing demand for fuel wood, which provides much of the county’s energy needs. Population pressure in the west, where the arable land is concentrated, means that over-cultivation and soil exhaustion are major problems. Livestock grazed on the upland pastures is the traditional source of wealth. Diamond deposits are mined in the north-eastern part of the country.

Water is Lesotho’s most important natural resource; currently, less than half of the population has access to safe water. A series of enormous dams and tunnels, known as the Highlands Water Project, has been under construction in the mountains since the late 1980s and is due for completion in 2015, though the first stage was completed in 2004. This hydroelectricity system will deliver water to the industrial areas of north-eastern South Africa, generating substantial income for Lesotho. The first phase of the scheme has generated considerable concern among environmentalists. However, the hydroelectric power component has already made Lesotho practically self-sufficient in electricity.

III.

Population

Almost all the inhabitants (99 per cent) of Lesotho are Sotho, and about 82 per cent live in rural areas. The small number of resident Europeans and Asians are mainly government officials, business people, aid workers, and missionaries.

A.

Population Characteristics

The population of Lesotho is 2,128,180 (2008 estimate), giving an average population density of about 70 people per sq km (182 per sq mi). However, about 70 per cent of the population lives in the lowlands, where densities can reach more than 200 people per sq km (518 per sq mi). Average life expectancy in 2008 was 41 years for men and 39 years for women.

Land shortage and lack of jobs in the formal sector mean that male Sotho have traditionally looked to South Africa for employment, working in the mines, as agricultural labourers, or as domestic servants. In the early 1990s, 38 per cent of the adult male labour force was working in South Africa. The figure was much lower than in previous decades—because of economic recession in South Africa and poor international gold prices, many Sotho lost their jobs during the late 1980s. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, around half the male labour force was in South Africa. In 1996 the proportion was 60 per cent. One consequence of this employment pattern is that women head many households in Lesotho and run many of the farms. Maseru is both Lesotho’s capital and by far its largest town, with a population of 170,000 (2003 estimate). Other important settlements are Teyateyaneng, Mafeteng, and Hlotse.

B.

Religion

About 93 per cent of the people of Lesotho are Christians, mainly Roman Catholics, Lesotho Evangelicals, and Anglicans. The remainder mostly follow traditional beliefs.

C.

Language

The official languages of Lesotho are Southern Sotho (or Sesotho) and English. About 85 per cent of the population speaks Sesotho, which is a Bantu language that is also spoken in South Africa. English is mainly a second language learnt in schools and used in official domains, such as business and commerce. Zulu and Xhosa (also Bantu languages) are also spoken in some parts.

D.

Education

Education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 13, and free at primary level. Nearly all Lesotho’s school-age children attend primary school. Christian missions under the direction of the ministry of education operate most schools. In 2000 around 411,045 pupils were enrolled in some 1,283 primary schools, and about 74,133 pupils attended more than 190 secondary and vocational schools. In contrast with many other developing countries, female participation in education in Lesotho has been much higher than male.

In the early 1990s, almost 90 per cent of eligible girls and 70 per cent of eligible boys were enrolled in primary schools; while around 46,000 students attended secondary schools, of whom 59 per cent were female. The average adult literacy rate of 86 per cent is one of the highest in Africa. The National University of Lesotho (1945), in Roma, had about 1,420 students and a teaching staff of 161 in the early 1990s. The Lesotho Agricultural College (1955) is in Maseru. In 1999–2000, 7.9 per cent of the country’s gross national product (GNP) was spent on education.

IV.

Economy

Lesotho is one of the world’s least developed countries, and its economy is heavily dependent on that of South Africa. In 2004 its GNP was US$1,319 million (World Bank estimate), equivalent to US$980 per capita. About 66 per cent of the non-migrant labour force depends on agriculture, which contributes about 16 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP).

Attempts to develop manufacturing have met with some success in terms of diversifying the economy and exports. The sector accounted for about 18 per cent of GDP in 2006 and more than 80 per cent of export earnings in 1994. Tourism, particularly from South Africa, expanded rapidly in the 1980s, and has grown further since South Africa’s political transformation.

The repatriated earnings of workers in South Africa largely finance a huge trade deficit, enabling Lesotho to operate a small surplus on the overall balance of payments. They also make up a large part of the income of about 60 per cent of households in the country. The loss of migrant worker jobs in South Africa during the late 1980s and the new South African policy of granting residency rights to migrant workers compounded the problems caused by lack of employment opportunities within Lesotho.

Lesotho has traditionally operated a budget deficit. However, the introduction of a four-year economic reform programme in 1990 enabled the government to cut the deficit to less than 1 per cent of GDP—compared with around 10 per cent in the late 1980s.

A.

Agriculture

Agriculture accounted for almost 5.5 per cent of export earnings in 1995; it faces many problems, including recurrent drought. The pressure on land means that programmes to conserve soil and raise crop yields are of great importance. However, the Highlands Water Scheme will permit the sale of water to South Africa and will support the economy’s continued expansion. Maize, sorghum, wheat, and fruits and vegetables are the main crops. In 2005 livestock included about 0.85 million sheep, 1.80 million poultry, 650,000 goats, 540,000 cattle, 100,000 horses, and 154,000 donkeys.

B.

Currency and Banking

The monetary unit of Lesotho is the loti (plural: maloti) of 100 lisente (6.81 maloti equalled US$1; early 2008). The Central Bank of Lesotho is the bank of issue. Lesotho, together with Namibia, Swaziland, and South Africa, is a member of the Common Monetary Area. This means that the loti is fixed on a par with the South African rand, and bank interest rates are linked to those of South Africa.

C.

Commerce and Trade

The vast majority of trade is with South Africa, through the Southern African Customs Union (SACU). Payments to SACU countries, which also include Botswana and Swaziland, are based on the percentage of each country’s share of SACU trade; the three smaller countries receive extra payments through an “enhancement” factor to help compensate for their loss of trade independence.

In 1995 imports consisted primarily of food, transport equipment, machinery, and fuel. Clothing, food, basic manufactures, chemicals, leather, and wool and mohair were the most important exports; clothing accounted for just over half of the total. The first sales of water to South Africa from the Highlands Water Scheme have begun. Import costs have been rising faster than export earnings, with a resulting increase in the trade deficit. In 2002 imports were valued at about US$800 million and exports at US$358 million.

D.

Transport

In 1999 Lesotho had some 5,940 km (3,691 mi) of roads, of which about 18 per cent are paved. In 1997 there were 6 passenger cars per 1,000 people. Most all-weather roads are in western Lesotho, but there have been improvements in both the quality and quantity of roads in the east since the mid-1980s—some 300 km (186 mi) of new access roads are being built in the mountains for the Highlands Water Project. Even so, many parts of the mountains remain accessible only by horse or donkey. A network of airstrips forms an important means of communication with such remote areas. An international airport serves Maseru, which is also linked by rail to South Africa.

V.

Government

Lesotho’s first constitution came into effect at independence in October 1966, and was suspended in January 1970. The army has been the main political force since 1986, when a military council seized power. Following the return of democratic government in March 1993 a new constitution was promulgated. However, according to a constitutional clause the army was allowed precedence over the government in matters of national security. The constitution provides for a hereditary monarch who is head of state, but who has neither executive nor legislative powers. Executive authority is vested in the Cabinet headed by the prime minister. Legislative power is exercised by a National Assembly, which was increased from 65 to 80 members in the 1998 elections, and a Senate, with 33 members. Elections are currently held every five years by universal adult suffrage, and in the context of a multi-party political system. Following the 1998 elections, the Interim Political Authority (IPA) was charged with reforming the electoral system to ensure representation for smaller parties. The result was a further increase in the number of seats in the National Assembly to 120.

A.

Political Parties

The government is formed by the Lesotho Congress for Democracy (LCD). Other major parties include the National Independent Party (NIP), the Basotho National Party (BNP), and the Lesotho Workers’ Party (LWP). The All Basotho Convention (ABC), formed in late 2006, has been the third major party since the elections of 2007.

B.

Local Government

A College of Chiefs is empowered by traditional law to elect and depose the king by majority vote. Lesotho has 10 administrative districts, subdivided into wards, which are presided over by hereditary chiefs and administered by district coordinators.

C.

Health and Welfare

In 2004 there were 18,519 people per doctor and in 2008 the country had an infant mortality rate of 79 deaths per 1,000 live births. Around 9 per cent of government expenditure was spent on health care in 1998. It is estimated that one in three of the population is HIV-positive; in 2005 a programme of testing for the disease was offered to all citizens.

D.

International Organizations

Lesotho is a member of the United Nations, the African Union, and the Commonwealth of Nations.

VI.

History

The original inhabitants of the region were the San (formerly called Bushmen). Basotho groups began arriving in the 18th century. The nation was united by one of the most outstanding leaders of 19th-century Southern Africa, Moshoeshoe I. During the warfare of the early 19th century which engulfed southern Africa, known as the Mfecane, Moshoeshoe I, then one of several Sotho chiefs, rallied the Sotho people, setting up his headquarters in 1824 on the hill known as Thaba Bosiu. From then until his death in 1870 Moshoeshoe I was undisputed leader of the Sotho, and as paramount chiefs he and his heirs were de facto kings. From 1838 Moshoeshoe I fought expansionist Boers in numerous border clashes.

A.

British Control

Although initially successful, the balance of power began to go against the Sotho, and after many requests by Moshoeshoe I to the British government his kingdom was made the British protectorate of Basutoland in 1868. In 1871, to save British government money, Basutoland was placed under the control of Cape Colony, in South Africa. The Sotho under Moshoeshoe rejected being governed by white colonists; after a war Britain resumed direct control in 1884.

The British government left the Sotho to themselves, assuming Basutoland’s eventual incorporation in South Africa as provided for in the South African Act of Union of 1910. The Sotho chiefs rejected this, however, especially after the formal institution of apartheid in South Africa in 1948.

The foundation of the BCP, originally called the Basutoland Congress Party, in 1952 marked the beginning of modern party politics in Lesotho. Opposing South African requests to take over the area, the British called constitutional talks and established an elected legislative council; the BCP won the elections, held in 1960. In the pre-independence elections of 1965 the BNP, then called the Basutoland National Party, founded in 1958, won a majority and its leader, Chief Joseph Leabua Jonathan, became prime minister.

B.

Independence

Basutoland became independent as Lesotho on October 4, 1966. Lesotho’s leaders had to find a way of living with an encircling South Africa, and Jonathan, while rejecting apartheid, campaigned for pragmatism. He initially had South African government backing; the BNP was the only party allowed to campaign in South Africa among migrant Sotho workers.

At independence Lesotho became a monarchy and the paramount chief, Moshoeshoe II, formally became king. He desired a more than ceremonial role, but his attempts to enlarge his authority brought a strong reaction from Jonathan. He was confined to the palace and forced to sign an undertaking to abdicate if he interfered in politics again.

In the first general elections after independence, held in January 1970, the BNP looked set to lose to the opposition BCP. Jonathan responded by annulling the elections and declaring a state of emergency. BCP and other opposition leaders were arrested, opposition parties were banned, and the constitution and parliament were suspended. Jonathan governed by decree until 1973, when an interim National Assembly of nominated members was set up.

C.

Relations with South Africa

Alleged supporters of the BCP staged an armed uprising in 1974. When it failed, the leaders of the BCP went into exile, and some formed an armed wing, the Lesotho Liberation Army, which engaged in frequent clashes with the paramilitary police during the following years. Jonathan, whose relations with South Africa had quickly soured, accused the South African government of harbouring and supporting the rebels.

Relations with South Africa became even more strained during the 1980s, when Jonathan refused to expel from Lesotho exiled members of the African National Congress (ANC), then banned in South Africa. In December 1982 South African forces crossed the border and attacked alleged ANC houses in Maseru, killing more than 40 people. A second raid in 1985 led to nine deaths.

D.

1986 Coup

In 1986 Jonathan was overthrown in a bloodless coup. Executive and legislative powers were formally vested in King Moshoeshoe II, although in practice they were exercised by a military council chaired by Major-General Justin Lekhanya. Following a power struggle with the council, Moshoeshoe II went into exile in March 1990. His eldest son, Prince Bereng Seeisa, was elected to replace him by the chiefs, and enthroned as Letsie III in November of that year.

In April 1990 Lekhanya was deposed from the military council. Shortly afterwards, the council announced that multi-party elections would be held in 1992; a ban on all political activity, in place since 1986, was lifted at the same time. In the event the elections were not held until March 1993. They proved an overwhelming victory for the BCP, which took all 65 seats in the new National Assembly; party leader Ntsu Mokhehle became prime minister.

E.

Growing Unrest

In August 1993 Letsie III suspended the constitution, dissolved parliament, and dismissed the government, in a move that was seen as part of a campaign for the reinstatement of his father, Moshoeshoe II, as king. The following month, after the intervention of Botswana, South Africa, and Zimbabwe, Letsie III reinstated the government, constitution, and parliament in an agreement which provided for his own abdication in favour of his father. Moshoeshoe II returned to Lesotho at the start of 1995 and was restored to the throne on January 25, after the voluntary abdication of Letsie III, who reverted to the role of crown prince. Following his death in 1996, Moshoeshoe II was replaced by once more by Letsie III.

Political and military unrest marred stability in Lesotho throughout the 1990s. In 1994 the deputy prime minister was shot and killed by mutinous troops, who resented the BCP victory in the 1993 election and the incorporation of former BCP guerrilla fighters into the army. A second attempt by senior members of the BCP to oust Ntsu Mokhehle from leadership of the party prompted a constitutional crisis in June 1997, and the creation by Mokhehle of a new political party, the Lesotho Congress for Democracy (LCD). LCD's membership was formed in part by BCP members who had resigned, and in August the BCP was declared the official opposition. Following the dissolution of the National Assembly in February 1998, a general election was held in May in which the LCD party was victorious. The result was declared “rotten and rigged” by the BCP, which failed to gain a single seat, but the election was considered free and fair by the independent electoral commission and South African observers.

Prime Minister Pakalitha Mosisili formed a government in June, amid continued allegations from both main opposition parties of electoral fraud. In response to violent protests in August, Mosisili announced the convening of an international team of experts to examine the allegations. The protests escalated in scale, and towards the end of September South African and Botswanan forces, responding to a plea for assistance from the prime minister, intervened to restore order. A peace agreement brokered in October by the South African Development Community (SADC) proposed the establishment of a transitional body, the IPA, to supervise preparations for fresh elections.

F.

New Elections

Ntsu Mokhehle died in January 1999, after a long illness. The SADC forces withdrew in May as the political situation began to stabilize. In September, a new electoral model was announced in preparation for the general election—a combination of a simple plurality model and proportional representation, although disagreements continued to delay many of the negotiations. At the same time the two main opposition parties, both of which were heavily represented in the IPA, suffered from internal power struggles; the BCP elected a new leader, T’seliso Makhakhe, amid much controversy in January. In February 2000 King Letsie III married Karabo Motsoeneng, a young commoner, in a lavish ceremony lasting several days.

Elections for the legislative assembly were held in May 2002, producing another large majority for the LCD. The results were contested by the BCP and the runners-up in the election, the Basotho National Party (BNP), though they were declared free and fair by both the Lesotho Independent Electoral Commission and by international observers. Mosisili was sworn in for a second term in June. In late 2006 Thomas Thabane and other MPs left the LCD to form a rival party, the All Basotho Convention (ABC). The general election, originally scheduled for May 2007, was held in February and resulted in victory for the LCD, which took 61 of the 120 seats in the National Assembly. The ABC secured 17 seats and the National Independent Party 21.