I.

Introduction

Belgium (in French, Belgique; in Dutch, België), officially Kingdom of Belgium, constitutional monarchy in north-western Europe, bounded on the north by the Netherlands and the North Sea, on the east by Germany and Luxembourg, and on the south and south-west by France. With the Netherlands and Luxembourg, Belgium forms the Low, or Benelux, Countries. It is about 282 km (175 mi) long, from the south-east to the north-west, about 145 km (90 mi) wide, and is roughly triangular in shape. The area is 30,528 sq km (11,787 sq mi). The capital and largest city is Brussels, located in the centre of Belgium.

II.

Land and Resources

Belgium has three main physiographic regions: the coastal plain, the central plateau, and the Ardennes highlands.

The coastal plain extends inland about 16 km to 48 km (10 mi to 30 mi) on the north-west. Along the North Sea is a low-lying area consisting mainly of sand dunes and polders. The polders, sections of land reclaimed from the sea and protected by dykes, were developed between the 13th and 15th centuries. Lying inland is a flat pastureland drained by canals. The coastal plain’s elevation ranges from sea level to about 20 m (65 ft).

The central plateau is a gently rolling, slightly elevated area, irrigated by many waterways and containing a number of wide, fertile valleys with a rich, alluvial soil. Caves, grottoes, and ravines are found in parts of this area.

The Ardennes highlands, a densely wooded plateau averaging 460 m (1,500 ft) in elevation, extends across south-eastern Belgium and into Luxembourg and north-eastern France. Located here is Botrange, the highest peak in Belgium, with an elevation of 694 m (2,277 ft). The area is generally rocky and poorly suited to agriculture.

A.

Rivers

The chief rivers are the Schelde (Scheldt) and the Meuse. Both rise in France and are for the most part navigable throughout Belgium. On the Schelde, the principal waterway of Belgium, are the ports of Antwerp, Brussels, and Ghent. The chief tributaries of the Schelde are the Lys, Dender, Senne (Zenne), and Rupel rivers. The Sambre and Ourthe rivers are the main tributaries of the Meuse.

B.

Climate

The climate near the sea is humid and mild. Farther inland, away from moderating maritime influences, a marked increase in the temperature range occurs. In the Ardennes region hot summers alternate with cold winters. Heavy rains are confined almost exclusively to the highlands. Fog and drizzle are common, and April and November are particularly rainy months. The mean annual temperature in Brussels is 10° C (50° F); the January mean is 2.2° C (36° F), and the July mean is 17.8° C (64° F). The average annual rainfall for the entire country is 699 mm (27y in); the average annual temperature is 8.3° C (47° F).

C.

Natural Resources

The natural resources of Belgium are almost entirely mineral. Coal was mined in abundance for many years, but most accessible supplies have been exhausted and most mines have closed since the late 1950s. Deposits of zinc, lead, copper, and manganese are also exploited but are of little commercial significance.

D.

Plants and Animals

Small animals, primarily fox, badger, squirrel, weasel, marten, and hedgehog, are found in Belgium. Deer and wild boar are present in the Ardennes region. Abundant plants include the hyacinth, strawberry, goldenrod, periwinkle, foxglove, wild arum, and lily of the valley. Forest trees include oak, beech, elm, and stands of pine that have been planted as part of reforestation programmes.

E.

Environmental Concerns

Belgium is heavily industrialized and experiences many of the environmental problems commonly associated with industrialization. The country is a significant producer of the greenhouse gases and industrial emissions that cause acid rain. Belgium's air quality has improved, however, and industrial emissions have steadily decreased since the United Nations (UN) Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) Sulphur Protocols were implemented, beginning in the 1970s. European Union (EU) directives expected to improve Belgium's environmental conditions concern water treatment and water quality; before these directives were issued, the Meuse, a major source of drinking water, had become polluted from steel production wastes. Other rivers were polluted with animal wastes and fertilizers. In 1995 the Flemish regional environmental minister attempted to restrict the widespread agricultural use of dung. His efforts were initially thwarted by a strong agricultural lobby but the legislation has since passed.

Belgium’s coastal lands are only separated from the sea by concrete defences and the land is especially threatened by flooding. Only 2.6 per cent (1997) of Belgium's land is protected in parks and other reserves. This is a small amount compared with neighbouring countries such as France (11.7 per cent), Netherlands (6.7 per cent), and Germany (27 per cent). Belgium is party to international agreements concerning air pollution and water pollution, biodiversity, ozone layer protection and climate control, endangered species, hazardous wastes, and wetlands.

III.

Population

The people of Belgium are primarily of two ethnic groups: the Flemings (of Teutonic origin) and the Walloons (of Celtic origin, probably with an admixture of Alpine elements). The distinction is also a linguistic one; the Flemings speak Dutch (formerly known as Flemish), and the Walloons speak French. The predominantly Flemish provinces are in the northern half of Belgium, called Flanders, and the predominantly Walloon provinces are in the southern half, called Wallonia. A German-speaking minority lives in the east. The capital, Brussels, is mixed. Overall, 57 per cent of the population is Dutch-speaking and 32 per cent is French-speaking, about 9 per cent is classified as bilingual and 0.7 per cent as German-speaking.

A.

Population Characteristics

The population of Belgium is 10,392,226 (2007 estimate). The overall population density, one of the highest in Europe, is about 343 people per sq km (889 people per sq mi). The largest concentrations are in the Brussels, Antwerp, Liège, and Ghent industrial areas, as well as in the narrow industrial region between Mons and Charleroi. In recent decades the Limburg city region has increased in population because of industrial expansion. Nearly 10 per cent of all Belgians live in Brussels. Almost 97 per cent of the population is classified as urban.

B.

Political Divisions

Belgium is divided into the ten provinces of Antwerp, East Flanders, Flemish Brabant, Hainaut, Liège, Limburg, Luxembourg, Namur, Walloon Brabant, and West Flanders and further into arrondissements and municipalities.

C.

Principal Cities

The chief cities and their populations are Brussels, the capital, 145,717 (2006 estimate), Antwerp, 464,038 (2006 estimate), and Ghent, 233,925 (2006 estimate).

D.

Religion

About 80 per cent of the Belgian population is Roman Catholic, but this percentage and regular church attendance are on the decline. Religious liberty is guaranteed, and part of the stipend of the ministers of all faiths is paid by the government. Other religions practised include a number of Protestant denominations, Islam, and Judaism.

E.

Language

In 1963 a law was passed establishing three official languages within Belgium: French (the native tongue of the Walloons and the most dominant language historically, now with at least 4 million speakers) was recognized as the official language in the south; Dutch (the language of the Flemings, and now the most widely spoken language in Belgium with more than 5.6 million speakers) in the north-west; and Standard German (spoken by about 1.5 per cent of the population) along the eastern border. In the city and suburbs of Brussels, both French and Dutch are officially recognized, although French speakers are the larger group.

In 1971 a constitutional change was enacted giving political recognition to the three language communities, providing cultural autonomy for them, and also revising the bilingual and administrative status of Brussels, an enclave in the Dutch-speaking area. Implementation of a three-stage programme to increase the fiscal autonomy of the three ethnolinguistic regions began in the late 1980s, and culminated in 1995 with the formation of a fully federal system of government (see Local Government).

Although it is called Dutch, the language of Belgium is often referred to as Flemish, which shares so many similar vocabulary and grammatical features to Dutch that it is classed by some as the same language (that is, a dialect of Dutch) and therefore labelled as such. However, Flemish is more probably a language in its own right and is not mutually intelligible with dialects of Dutch that are spoken in east Flanders. Flemish is spoken in west Flanders. Standard Dutch is also used by most Flemings, particularly for official purposes. Luxembourgish, a Germanic language, and Picard, a Romance language, are also spoken in Belgium.

F.

Education

Although educational freedom was provided by the constitution of 1831, the first law for public elementary education was not passed until 1842. In 1914 compulsory attendance was enacted for children between the ages of 6 and 14. Since 1959 the education system has included state secular schools and private Roman Catholic schools. Educational controversies involving language and religion that arose in Belgium in the 19th century have continued to the present day. Education is full-time and compulsory from ages 6 to 16. It is then part-time until age 18. Since 1963 teaching has been carried out in the language of the region; in Brussels, however, it is in the pupil’s own tongue. In the mid-1990s about 731,500 pupils were attending primary schools each year, and about 792,300 students were in secondary schools.

The oldest Belgian university dates from the Middle Ages. The Catholic University of Louvain, since 1970 divided into independent French- and Dutch-speaking universities, was founded under religious auspices in 1425. The universities of Ghent and Liège were founded in 1817 during the period of Dutch rule, and the Free University of Brussels was opened in 1834 under an enactment by the newly formed Belgian government. Ghent has a Dutch-speaking faculty, Liège a French-speaking one. In 1965 state universities opened in the cities of Mons and Antwerp. In 1970 the Free University of Brussels became two independent institutions, one teaching in Dutch, the other in French.

Royal academies of fine arts and royal conservatories of music are located in Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, Liège, and Mons. State agricultural institutes are located in Ghent and Gembloux-sur-Orneau. In the early 1990s, total enrolment at universities and other institutions of higher education exceeded 116,250 students.

G.

Culture

Festivals play an important part in Belgian life. One of the most famous is the three-day carnival at Binche, near Mons, held just before Lent. During the carnival, merriment and dancing are led by “Gilles”, men dressed in high, plumed hats and bright costumes. Another famous pageant is the Procession of the Holy Blood, held in Bruges in May. December 6 commemorates St Nicholas’s Day, an important children’s holiday.

General and specialized libraries are located in all the principal cities. The national library and main reference collection is the Bibliothèque Royale Albert I (1837) in Brussels, with some 3 million volumes. The universities of Ghent, Liège, and Louvain also have large libraries.

The Royal Museum for Fine Arts (1890) in Antwerp is noted for its collection of paintings by the Flemish painter Peter Paul Rubens. The Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium (1830), in Brussels, has a collection of artworks of many periods, a concert hall, and a cinema.

The National Theatre (1945) in Brussels is supported by state subsidies. Belgium has contributed to both Flemish and French literature. Among the outstanding authors of the country are Philippe de Comines and Jean Froissart, who wrote in French during the Middle Ages. The works of Charles de Coster and Émile Verhaeren, both of whom wrote in French, and of Hendrik Conscience, who developed the Flemish novel, were popular during the 19th century. Poet and playwright Maurice Maeterlinck, who wrote in French, won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1911. However, probably the best-known author of Belgian descent is Georges Simenon. Born in Liège, his Inspector Maigret novels are read worldwide. See also Flemish Language; Flemish Literature.

During the 15th and 16th centuries, northern Europe was one of the centres of the Renaissance. The Flemish painters Hubert van Eyck and Jan van Eyck, Hieronymus Bosch, and Pieter Bruegel the Elder were among the outstanding artists of this period. Dominant in the 17th century were Rubens and Sir Anthony van Dyck, who are regarded by many as two of the greatest Flemish painters. Among 20th-century painters and graphic artists of international fame are James Ensor, Paul Delvaux, and René Magritte. Belgian architect Victor Horta was one of the originators of the Art Nouveau style of architecture, which had an important influence on European architects of the 20th century. Contemporary Belgian architecture is represented by the designs of Henri van de Velde.

IV.

Economy

Primarily an industrial nation, Belgium’s gross national product (GNP) in 2004 was about US$326 billion, yielding an annual income per head of about US$36,140 (World Bank). Belgium imports great quantities of raw materials that are processed mainly for export. The greater part of Belgian industry, including steel, coal, chemical, and petroleum firms, is controlled by six trusts. In the mid-1990s installed electric power capacity was about 14.1 million kW; electric power production was about 79 billion kWh in 2003, with nuclear generation accounting for 57 per cent of production. Parliament has backed a bill to close all the country’s nuclear reactors by 2025. In 2005 annual budget estimates set revenue at about US$156.8 billion and expenditures at about US$156.3 billion. A growing budget deficit, combined with high unemployment rates, hindered Belgium’s overall economic growth in the early 1980s. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, growth recovered, only to fall back in 1993. This trend appeared to have been reversed by late 1994, with an increase in gross domestic product (GDP) of more than 2 per cent, and although Belgium’s budget deficit had been reduced, it remained the highest in the EU in 1997.

A.

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing

About 2 per cent of the total labour force works in agriculture, which supplies some 80 per cent of Belgium’s food requirements. About 65 per cent of farms are intensively cultivated units of less than 10 hectares (25 acres). About 45 per cent of the land is used for field crops or stock-raising, and nearly 3 per cent for horticulture. In 2005 the leading crops were sugar beet (6 million tonnes), potatoes (2.65 million), wheat (1.77 million), and barley (306,215). Other important crops include fruits, tomatoes, and flax. Livestock and dairy farming are major agricultural industries; Belgium produces about 95 per cent of its meat requirements and is totally self-sufficient in butter, eggs, and milk. In 2005 the livestock population of Belgium numbered some 6.33 million pigs, 2.69 million cattle, 155,333 sheep, 33,887 horses, and 34.4 million poultry.

Forests cover about 22 per cent of the area of Belgium, and wooded areas are used primarily for recreational purposes. In recent years, stands of conifers have been planted and forestry activity has increased; however, timber is still imported for the country’s paper industry.

Belgium’s main fishing port is Ostend. The fishing fleet exploits the North Atlantic Ocean fisheries from the North Sea to Iceland. The total catch in 2004 amounted to about 27,775 tonnes, primarily herring, sole, cod, shrimp, sprats, and plaice.

B.

Mining

Historically, coal was the principal mineral resource of Belgium, but easily accessible supplies have been largely exhausted and production dropped precipitously in the late 1980s. The industry mined 5.6 million tonnes of hard coal in 1986, but output fell to 634,000 tonnes in 1991 and to just 278,000 in 1992. Many mines have been closed in the southern coal-mining regions around Mons, Charleroi, Liège, and Namur; the Campine basin to the north provides nearly all the coal that is still mined. There is no longer an economically significant mining industry; the contribution of mining to GDP is less than 0.5 per cent. Because of this, coal must be imported for steel-making and other industries. Belgium is also a major importer of crude oil.

C.

Manufacturing

Belgium is one of the most highly industrialized countries of Europe, largely because of its geographical location and transport facilities. Industrial production increased steadily after World War II, but began to decrease in the 1950s. However, the establishment of the European Economic Community (now the EU) in 1957 and the introduction by the government of an investment-incentive programme resulted in a new surge in Belgian industry. Belgium ranks high among world producers of iron and steel, and more than half the total output is exported. About 10.8 million tonnes of crude steel were produced annually in the mid-1990s.

The textile industry, dating from the Middle Ages, produces cottons, woollens, linens, and synthetics. With the exception of flax, all raw materials are imported. Centres of the textile industry are Bruges, Brussels, Limburg, Ghent, Liège, Kortrijk (Courtrai), and Mechelen. In the early 1990s about 52,000 tonnes of cotton fabrics, 28,000 tonnes of wool fabrics, and 34,200 tonnes of rayon and acetate fabrics were produced annually. Carpet-making is an important industry in Saint-Nicolas; Brussels and Bruges are noted for the manufacture of lace, fine lawn, and damask.

The Belgian chemical industry leads the world in the production of cobalt and radium salts and also ranks high in the production of coal tar, fertilizers, and plastics. Pharmaceuticals, photographic supplies, glassware, furniture, paper and cartons, and cement are also important manufactures.

The non-ferrous-metals industry furnishes the metallurgical, chemical, and other industries with a wide variety of metals, including copper, zinc, lead, platinum, germanium, and uranium.

The bulk of the metal-manufacturing industry is engaged in the production of heavy machinery, structural steelwork, and industrial equipment. Other important industries are shipbuilding, which is centred in Antwerp, and the manufacture of railway equipment. The diamond-cutting industry, also based in Antwerp, is one of the world’s largest sources of cut industrial diamonds.

D.

Currency and Banking

The monetary unit of Belgium was previously the Belgian franc of 100 centimes; however, in accordance with the Single European Currency, Belgium adopted Euro notes and coins from January 1, 2002. As at early 2007, 0.77 Euros equalled US$1. At the head of the banking system in the country is the National Bank of Belgium, established in 1850.

E.

Commerce and Trade

The foreign trade of Belgium and Luxembourg is conducted jointly. The two countries formed the Belgo-Luxembourg Economic Union (BLEU) in 1921; until 1990 they operated a dual exchange rate and the Belgian franc is still legal tender in Luxembourg. In 1948 a customs union was established between the two countries and the Netherlands. It was extended in 1958 into an agreement for full economic integration. In 1960 the Benelux Economic Union became operative, establishing free movement of labour, capital, and services between the three states. In the mid-1990s the chief Belgo-Luxembourg imports—which included fuels, ores and minerals, chemicals, machinery and electrical equipment, motor vehicles, non-precious metals, transport equipment, clothing accessories, and foodstuffs—had a total annual value of US$144 billion; exports—mainly iron and steel manufactures, textiles, chemicals, machinery and transport equipment, food and livestock, and cut diamonds—had a total yearly value of about US$154 billion. Germany, France, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States are the principal Belgo-Luxembourg trading partners. Belgium became a member of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951. Six years later, Belgium was a founder member of both the European Economic Community (now the European Union) and the European Atomic Energy Community.

F.

Labour

The total labour force is about 4.50 million workers. More than four fifths are employed in manufacturing, services, and trade. Nearly two thirds of all employees belong to three trade union groups: the General Federation of Labour, the Federation of Christian Trade Unions, and the General Federation of Liberal Trade Unions.

G.

Transport

The chief access to the sea for Belgian shipping is via the Schelde and Meuse estuaries, which lie within the Netherlands. Antwerp, on the River Schelde, although some 84 km (52 mi) from the sea, is one of the busiest ports in the world. Belgium’s rivers are connected by an important system of canals. The aggregate length of canals and navigable rivers totals about 1,520 km (1,000 mi). Supplementing the waterways are about 128,345 km (79,750 mi) of local roads, 1,660 km (1,031 mi) of motorway, and 12,750 km (7,922 mi) of national and main roads, used by more than 4.6 million vehicles, and 3,542 km (2,201 mi) of railway track. The railways are state owned; no other country in the world has more railway track per unit area. Sabena, the Belgian national airline, filed for bankruptcy in November 2001. It was succeeded by a subsidiary and was renamed SN Brussels Airlines a few months later. Brussels National Airport is Belgium’s leading airport.

H.

Communications

French- and Dutch-language broadcast services are provided by the government, with costs defrayed through annual licence fees on receiving sets; commercial broadcasting is also permitted. Many foreign broadcasts are also received. In 1997 some 8 million radio sets, 6 million television sets, and 456 telephones per 1,000 people were operating. Around 30 daily newspapers are published.

V.

Government

Belgium is a constitutional, representative, and hereditary monarchy. Succession to the throne was previously by male descendants only; however, in 1991 a constitutional change gave women the right to accede to the throne. The present ruler is King Albert II (born 1934) and his heir is Prince Philippe (born 1960). Prince Philippe’s first-born daughter (Princess Elisabeth, born 2001) is now second in line to the throne. The Belgian constitution was promulgated in 1831 and revised in 1893, 1921, 1970, 1971, 1980, 1989, 1991, and 1993. Responding to tensions between the Dutch- and French-speaking areas of Belgium, the reforms since 1970 have gradually transformed Belgium into a federal country. The majority of essential governmental powers now belong to the three regions: Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels.

A.

Executive and Legislature

Executive power is vested in the monarch, who appoints the prime minister, Cabinet ministers, and judges. The monarch is commander-in-chief of the armed forces and, with the approval of parliament, has the power to declare war and conclude treaties. The rights of the monarch, according to the constitution, include convening and dissolving parliament, conferring titles of nobility, and granting pardons. All royal acts, however, must be countersigned by a minister, who in turn assumes responsibility for those acts before parliament. Inasmuch as the ministers are responsible to parliament, the monarch must choose a Cabinet that represents a majority in parliament. Cabinets are generally multi-party coalitions.

The bicameral parliament comprises the Chamber of Representatives and the Senate. The 150 members of the Chamber of Representatives are elected for a four-year term by proportional representation; all citizens over 18 are eligible and obliged by law to vote. There are usually 71 members in the Senate, comprising 40 directly elected senators (25 from the Dutch-speaking electoral college, and 15 from the French-speaking electoral college), and 31 co-opted community senators, appointed from the regional assemblies and language groups; under the Constitution, the heir to the throne becomes a Senator by right on reaching the age of 18, and is eligible to vote in the Senate on reaching age 21.

B.

Political Parties

The three major political alliances, each consisting of Dutch- and French-speaking units, are the Christian Democrat parties (1945), the Socialist parties (1885), and the Liberal parties, including the Freedom and Progress Party (Dutch, 1961) and the Liberal Reform Party (French, 1979). In November 2004 the nationalist Vlaams Blok political party was declared racist and subsequently disbanded. In its place the Vlaams Belang party was formed. There are many minor parties including greens and communists.

C.

Judiciary

The Belgian constitution provides for an independent judiciary with powers equal to those of the executive and legislative departments. The highest tribunals are the five Courts of Appeal, which sit at Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, Liège, and Mons; the five labour courts; and the Supreme Court of Justice. Cases are referred to the courts of appeal by the courts of assize, which review both civil and criminal matters. In the assize courts 12 jurors decide all cases by majority vote. A special court was established in 1989 to resolve constitutional conflicts arising from the transfer of power from the central government to regional authorities.

D.

Local Government

Each of Belgium’s three regions elects its own parliament, which is responsible for education, health care, and other areas of policy within the region. Within each region, each province has a council of 47 to 84 members chosen by direct vote every six years. The provinces are subdivided into administrative districts, often based in cities and towns, called communes. Each commune is administered by a burgomaster appointed by the monarch. The town council, directly elected to six-year terms, advises the monarch on this appointment. The council elects an executive body called the board of aldermen. Local government at all levels possesses a large degree of autonomy, a tradition that originated in feudal times.

E.

Health and Welfare

Health and hospital services are the responsibility of public assistance commissions located in each town. The commissions pay for relief patients in private hospitals, administer public hospitals, and organize nursing services and clinics.

Social security, based on a law passed in 1944, applies to all workers subject to employment contracts. The Central National Office of Social Security collects from employers and employees all contributions for family allowances, health insurance, old-age insurance, holidays, and unemployment insurance and distributes the funds to the respective administrative divisions. This comprehensive welfare system has resulted in great improvements in public health and brought economic stability to the populace, but has also exacerbated Belgium’s budget deficit. In May 2002 Belgium became the second country (after the Netherlands) to pass legislation to legalize euthanasia under certain strict conditions.

F.

Defence

Belgium is a founding member of the NATO, which has its headquarters in Brussels. Recruitment to Belgium’s armed forces is made by voluntary enlistment. Military training and equipment are coordinated with those of the Netherlands under a 1948 agreement. In 1994, in order to reduce government spending, the numbers of personnel were drastically cut from over 80,000 to around 40,000. In 2004 the armed forces totalled 36,900 personnel comprising: army, 24,800; navy, 2,450; air force, 6,350; and medical, 1,250.

G.

International Organizations

Belgium is a member of the following organizations: the United Nations (UN), the Benelux Economic Union, the Council of Europe (CE), the EU, NATO, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD); the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE); and the Western European Union (WEU).

VI.

History

Belgium derives its name from the Belgae, an ancient Celtic tribe. The Roman region of Gallia Belgica (Belgian Gaul) included modern Belgium, northern France, the Netherlands, and part of Switzerland. Rome’s successor in western Europe was the kingdom of the Franks, which originated in Belgian Gaul and expanded into Germany, eventually extending from the Pyrenees Mountains eastward across the Alps and southward as far as Rome itself. The Franks were led by Charlemagne, who united all of western Europe through conquest during his reign from 768 to 814. When the Frankish realm was partitioned in 843, Belgium was incorporated in the duchy of Lorraine, which was part of Francia Orientalis (the East Frankish Kingdom, or Germany). In the extreme west of this realm arose the county of Flanders, which was a fief of the kings of France. In 1384 Flanders was united with Burgundy, and by the mid-15th century the dukes of Burgundy ruled the greater part of the Belgian and Dutch Netherlands. While owing allegiance to the French Crown, Burgundy’s aim was to found a powerful state between France and Germany. This effort was disrupted by the death in 1477 of the last Burgundian ruler, Charles the Bold.

A.

Habsburg Rule

By the marriage in 1477 of Mary of Burgundy, daughter of Charles the Bold, to the German prince Maximilian (later Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I), all of the rich Burgundian realm except the duchy itself passed to the control of the Habsburg family. Maximilian’s grandson, Charles, inherited the Netherlands (which included present-day Belgium) in 1506. Charles ascended the throne of Spain in 1516 and later became Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. In 1549 he decreed that the Netherlands be formally joined to the possessions of Spain.

When Philip II of Spain, Charles’s successor, tried to suppress Protestantism and forbade all trade between his subjects and the outside world, he provoked a rebellion in the Netherlands that began in 1566. This upheaval was partly a religious and economic struggle and partly an attempt to preserve local traditions of self-government. Spanish armies were defeated, but the strife between the predominantly Catholic south and the Protestant north continued. In 1581 seven northern provinces (Gelderland, Friesland, Holland, Groningen, Overijssel, Utrecht, and Zeeland) declared their independence as the United Provinces of the Netherlands, while the southern provinces (Belgium) remained loyal to Spain.

Philip II continued to pursue reconquest of the north without success. In 1609, with neither side capable of a decisive victory, Philip III of Spain signed a 12-year truce with the rebels. By the time this accord expired, the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) was raging, and the Spanish Netherlands was once again a battleground. In 1635 the Dutch and French joined forces to divide the Spanish Netherlands, but could still not dislodge the Spaniards. A succession of Franco-Dutch victories finally forced the Spanish king, Philip IV, to accept a separate peace with the Dutch in 1648. The south, present-day Belgium and Luxembourg, remained a Spanish domain. By the Treaty of Münster, the Dutch gained some territory on their southern border, notably Maastricht, and Spain agreed to close off shipping from the River Schelde, which flowed through Dutch territory but which was Antwerp’s sole outlet to the sea. The great port city, a centre of commerce, thus entered a period of decline.

France, with a growing coalition of European powers, continued the war with Spain. Throughout his long reign the French king Louis XIV refused to abandon his quest for the Spanish Netherlands. By the Peace of the Pyrenees in 1659, France gained several frontier areas, and through subsequent conquests won possession of additional towns. The Spanish Netherlands became an important pawn in the next major European conflict, the War of the Spanish Succession. A settlement, known as the Peace of Utrecht (1713-1715), gave France part of Flanders, including Dunkerque and Lille. The bulk of the territory, however, became the Austrian Netherlands, with a stipulation that its fortresses on the French border be garrisoned by the Dutch.

During the War of the Austrian Succession in 1744, the country was occupied by the French, but it was restored to Austria by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. Except for this invasion, Belgium’s Austrian era was initially peaceful. The tranquillity was disrupted in 1781 when the Austrian emperor, Joseph II, decided to raze the border fortresses and reopen the Schelde estuary. The Dutch mounted an effective blockade and again closed the river to trade. Then, in 1787, as part of his effort to centralize the administration of the far-flung Habsburg domains, Joseph abolished provincial autonomy in the Austrian Netherlands. The loss of local control led to a general uprising that coincided with the outbreak of the French Revolution. Most of the Austrian garrisons were forced to capitulate, and on January 11, 1790, a Belgian republic was proclaimed. Quarrels between social and religious factions shook the new state from the outset. Within a year of Joseph’s death in 1790, his successor, Leopold II, re-established control. A conciliatory and enlightened ruler, he revoked his predecessor’s decrees, but the new regime won little popular support. After Leopold was succeeded by Francis II in 1792, Austria became embroiled in war with the revolutionary government of France. Belgium was twice occupied by the French army, and the country was formally ceded to France by the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797.

B.

French and Dutch Rule

The regime installed by the French was generally unpopular, but Belgium profited from French rule. It expanded in area after France conquered the prosperous city of Liège and annexed it to Belgian territory; it benefited economically after the French opened the River Schelde to shipping, leading to a revival of Antwerp as a centre of commerce. New markets were also opened for local industry.

In 1814 the country was occupied by armies of the nations ranged against Napoleon Bonaparte; the following year the Battle of Waterloo, the last great battle of the Napoleonic Wars, was fought on Belgian soil.

The peace settlement adopted at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 again united Belgium and the Netherlands, this time under a Dutch king, William I. Catholic Belgium, however, did not want a Protestant ruler, even though the country prospered under the Dutch. The outbreak of a revolution in France in July 1830 inspired a Belgian uprising in August. Dutch troops were driven from Brussels, and on October 4 a unique coalition of Catholics and Liberals proclaimed Belgian independence. The great powers—Austria, France, Britain, Prussia, and Russia—accepted Belgian independence, despite Dutch refusal to acquiesce.

C.

Independence and Neutrality

The Belgians drew up a constitution providing for a bicameral legislature elected by male property-owners and a king whose executive acts had to be countersigned by a responsible minister. They chose as their monarch Leopold I of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. He was a model constitutional monarch whose political skills enabled him to wield considerable power at home, and to become an influential figure among Europe’s rulers. The Dutch finally agreed to recognize Belgium in 1839 and a peace treaty was signed. In the settlement, half of Luxembourg became a Belgian province, while the Dutch were awarded nominal control of the remainder of the Grand Duchy, as well as Limburg east of the Meuse. In its most important provision, the European powers confirmed Belgium as an “independent and perpetually neutral state”.

Even after the internal alliance of Catholics and anti-clerical Liberals disintegrated, Belgian constitutionalism survived. The economic decline that followed the separation from Dutch markets was halted by Europe’s first national programme of railway construction, which connected all major Belgian towns by 1840. Belgium had become politically and economically viable by 1865, when Leopold I died and was succeeded by his son.

Under Leopold II, Belgium faced many domestic problems. Liberals and Catholics fought over control of education, finally agreeing to let local governments decide whether or not to subsidize parochial schools. By the 1880s industrialization and population density—the greatest in Europe—had produced appalling living conditions in the cities. As the rural labour force shrank and the number of people engaged in industry tripled, the government enacted legislation to improve housing and working conditions. The workers, who still could not vote, began organizing to obtain political equality. An 1893 general strike forced parliament to institute universal adult male suffrage, modified to give more than one vote to university graduates, men over the age of 50, and property-owners.

Another domestic problem was the lack of a common language. The country’s inhabitants were divided between Dutch-speaking Flemings in Antwerp, East and West Flanders, and Limburg, and French-speaking Walloons in the remaining provinces. The province of Brabant, which includes Brussels, contained speakers of both languages. Flemings outnumbered Walloons, but French was the language of the upper classes, who controlled much of Belgium’s wealth. Thus, Walloon interests were disproportionately represented in the government. The expansion of suffrage began to redress this imbalance, forcing the government to accord equality to both languages when transacting official business.

Early in his reign Leopold II personally financed an expedition up the River Congo and at the Berlin Conference of 1885 he was recognized as sovereign of the Congo Free State. After 1900, however, reports of mistreatment of the native Africans outraged Belgian public opinion and led to legislation in 1908 transferring control of this royal enterprise to the State.

As the outbreak of war seemed imminent in Europe, Belgium’s neutral status caused a domestic controversy over the military budget. Advocates of preparedness opposed those who believed that the nation’s neutrality rendered most armaments unnecessary. In 1909, when Albert ascended the throne—his reign lasted until 1934—he warned that the army was not strong enough to defend the country. The Catholic-led government used an electoral victory in 1912 to increase draft quotas, over the opposition of Liberals and Socialists.

D.

World War I

On August 4, 1914, one week after the war began, German troops crossed the frontier into Belgium, ignoring its neutral status. The government resisted invasion and appealed to France, Britain, and Russia for aid. The Belgian army put up a heroic defence against overpowering forces; for four years its troops held on to a sliver of Belgian territory between the River Yser and the French border. The Germans, meanwhile, carried on a ruthless occupation of Belgium, confiscating property and deporting civilians. Although they attempted to capitalize on language divisions by establishing separate Flemish and Walloon administrations, only a small minority of Flemings collaborated with the invaders. A million Belgians fled the country. As the war dragged on, more than 80,000 Belgian soldiers and civilians died.

The major Allied offensive that began on September 28, 1918, liberated the entire Belgian coast and led the Germans to agree to an armistice and to withdrawal on the Allies’ terms. The shooting war was finally over. Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany ceded Eupen, Malmédy, and Moresnet to Belgium, adding 989.3 sq km (382 sq mi) and some 64,500 inhabitants to the kingdom.

Belgium was faced with the task of rebuilding the devastated areas. Although the damage was enormous, the country made a remarkable recovery. The introduction of unqualified adult male suffrage after the war increased the following of the Socialists, who now supplanted the Liberals as the major political rival of the Catholics. Meanwhile, Belgium abandoned neutrality and in 1920 signed a military alliance with France. In 1925 it became a party to the Locarno treaties, in which Britain, France, Germany, and Italy affirmed Belgium’s territorial inviolability.

E.

World War II

In 1936, after France failed to oppose German remilitarization of the Rhineland, Belgium again returned to neutrality with the understanding that Britain and France would assist in its defence against foreign aggression. Nevertheless, Belgium was attacked for a second time by Germany on May 10, 1940. Without warning or ultimatum, Belgian airfields, railway stations, and communications centres were bombed by German planes, and German armoured units rolled across the border. The army and the French and British troops that came to Belgium’s aid were overwhelmed by the superiority of the invading forces. By May 26 the Allies were pushed into a narrow beachhead around Dunkerque, France, near the Belgian border. King Leopold III surrendered his remaining forces unconditionally on May 28 and was taken prisoner. The Belgian Cabinet, which had fled to Paris, refused to acknowledge defeat, declaring the King’s surrender “illegal and unconstitutional”. On May 30 the ministers voted to divest Leopold III of all powers and of the right to rule, a decision supported by the Belgian parliament. After the fall of France, the Belgian government moved to London; it returned to Brussels on September 8, 1944. Later that month parliament elected Leopold’s brother, Prince Charles, as regent.

F.

Post-War Belgium

Although Belgium was in better economic condition after World War II than after World War I, it was politically disorganized because of a conflict between the Christian Social (CVP) Party and the coalition of Liberals, Socialists, and Communists. Intensifying the political struggle was the question concerning King Leopold III, who had remained in Austria awaiting determination of his future. Despite pressure from the CVP Party (now strengthened by the enfranchisement of women), which favoured the return of the king, the Belgian parliament in the summer of 1945 extended indefinitely the regency of Prince Charles, virtually exiling the king because of his alleged defeatism in 1940. While the struggle for political control continued, Belgium regained much of its former position as one of the world’s great trading nations.

Belgium joined the UN as a charter member on June 26, 1945, and gave consistent support to the other Western member nations during the so-called Cold War with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and the states within the Soviet sphere of influence. Belgium was similarly cooperative towards the efforts of the democratic countries to accomplish economic recovery and to erect safeguards against communist aggression. In April 1949 Belgium joined NATO.

G.

Royal Controversy

On March 12, 1950, after more than a year of successive governmental crises brought on by the controversy over the king, the Belgian electorate went to the polls in an advisory plebiscite on the question of Leopold’s return. The return of the king from exile was favoured by 57.6 per cent of the voters. On July 20 the Belgian parliament ratified popular sentiment. During the following week strikes, demonstrations, and riots occurred in many urban areas, raising the possibility of a civil war. On August 1, after consultations with government and political leaders, Leopold agreed to assign his royal prerogatives to his son, Crown Prince Baudouin, and to abdicate the following year, when his son attained his majority. Leopold abdicated on July 16, 1951, and Baudouin was proclaimed King the next day.

H.

European Cooperation

The 1950s were marked by the concentrated effort of European leaders to effect a politico-economic union of the Western European nations. Taking an active role in this movement, Belgium—along with France, West Germany (now part of the United Federal Republic of Germany), Luxembourg, Italy, and the Netherlands—became a charter member of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1952. When France refused to ratify the treaty establishing the European Defence Community in 1954, Foreign Minister Paul Henri Spaak initiated the second “launching of Europe”. His efforts were instrumental in the founding, in 1957, of the European Economic Community. Brussels became the seat of its governing commission and much of its bureaucracy, reflecting the key role that Spaak played in shaping the new European order. That same year the nation became a member of the European Atomic Energy Community. Belgium has greatly benefited since from its membership and key role in these supranational organizations.

I.

Crises of Empire and Nation

In 1960 uprisings in the Belgian Congo forced Belgium to withdraw from its African empire. On June 30, 1960, King Baudouin proclaimed the independence of the colony (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo). In 1962 the Belgian-administered UN trust territory of Ruanda-Urundi achieved independence as two states, Rwanda and Burundi.

Within Belgium, the long-standing rivalry between Flemings and Walloons frequently erupted into riots during the 1960s. A government settlement effected in September 1963 changed the official language boundaries, but the problem was not that easily solved. In January 1968 clashes between Walloons and Flemings led to the collapse of the government. The Christian Social leader, Gaston Eyskens, formed a coalition with the Socialists in June. The coalition retained its majority in 1971, but the Cabinet resigned in November 1972. A three-party coalition under Socialist leadership followed, but, weakened by linguistic and cultural tensions, it fell in January 1974. After elections in March, the Christian Social leader, Léo Tindemans, formed a coalition with the Liberals and the Rassemblement Wallon. He held office until February 1977 despite an economic recession. Elections followed in April, but the results made the formation of a new government impossible until an agreement was reached providing for greater regional autonomy. That agreement was rejected by parliament, and new elections in December 1978 proved inconclusive.

In the 1980s the Christian Social parties formed the Cabinets, usually under the leadership of Wilfried Martens. He formed his eighth government in 1988, and in January 1989 parliament passed a devolution bill designed to transfer power from the central government to the three ethnolinguistic regions (see Language above). Implementation of this law moved slowly, and the November 1991 elections resulted in a reduced plurality for the Christian Socialists. Martens resigned as party leader, and his successor, Jean-Luc Dehaene, formed a new centre-left government in March 1992. Belgium moved to support increased economic and political cooperation in Europe by ratifying the Maastricht Treaty on European union in the autumn of 1992. In May 1993 Belgium completed the devolution process, officially becoming a federal country with three regions, or states. King Baudouin died on July 31, 1993, and was succeeded by his brother Albert II.

In 1994 the death of the president of Rwanda in a plane crash sparked off a bloody civil war between the Tutsi and Hutu tribes in which possibly 1 million people died. Belgian troops figured prominently in initial UN attempts to end the fighting.

Following a general election in May 1995, Jean-Luc Dehaene’s coalition government was returned to office. In October 1995 the Chamber of Representatives voted to remove the parliamentary immunity of Willi Claes, the Belgian Secretary-General of NATO and former deputy prime minister, to allow his prosecution on corruption charges relating to bribes he allegedly received in the 1980s from the Italian helicopter company Agusta. In a contentious ruling, the supreme Belgian military court decided in March 1996 that Irma Laplasse, a wartime collaborator whose cause had been taken up by Flemish nationalists, had been wrongly executed for treason in 1948. Facing a worsening deficit crisis and strong trade union opposition, the government received in May 1996 powers to introduce economic austerity measures and social security reforms by decree.

The investigation in August of organized paedophile activity caused widespread concern that the judicial system was in need of reform and that the perpetrators of the crimes had received police protection. The scope of the investigations resulted in the arrest in October of the suspected assassins of André Cools, the former deputy prime minister, who had been shot dead in 1991. The paedophile investigation widened further in November when it was confirmed that the deputy prime minister, Elio di Rupo, was alleged to have had some involvement; the allegations were found to be without foundation in December. In late January and early February 1997 anti-government demonstrations took place in Brussels and Tubize, sparked by growing resentment of policies to cut public expenditure and by the closure of the steelworks at Tubize.

Former deputy prime minister and former leader of the Walloon Socialist Party (PS) Guy Spitaels was indicted on bribery charges in March 1997. The charges related to allegations that the PS had accepted illegal payments from the Dassault aviation group in return for favour in awarding government contracts. The parliamentary committee established in October 1996 to investigate the paedophile murders that had caused widespread shock and anger in the country presented its report in April. While it accused the police and judiciary of gross incompetence, it found no evidence of the “high level protection” that had been alleged to involve some of those in positions of authority, and which had provoked widespread public anger, culminating in the White March, a mass demonstration of 250,000 people in Brussels in October. Doubts were cast over the future of the investigation in June, when a former member of the commission revealed details of evidence given, and opinions within the commission. The justice minister and the interior minister both resigned in April 1998, in the wake of the government crisis following the brief escape from custody of Marc Dutroux, the chief suspect in the child murder scandal. Prime Minister Dehaene survived a subsequent vote of confidence by 81 votes to 64.

Belgium's centre-left coalition government suffered a major defeat in parliamentary elections in June 1999, which was widely attributed to rising public anger over a food contamination scandal. In late May the government revealed that a wide variety of Belgian foodstuffs might have been contaminated by the cancer-causing chemical, dioxin. Officials reportedly allowed more than a month to pass before warning the public about potential health hazards. A coalition government led by centre-right Liberal parties took office on July 12, 1999. The new government included the left-leaning Socialist parties and the environmentalist Green parties. Its formation marked the first time since 1958 that Christian Democrat parties were excluded from national government. Guy Verhofstadt, leader of the Flemish Liberals, was sworn in as Belgium's new prime minister.

In local elections held in October 2000 a far-right-wing party, Vlaams Blok, which wanted independence for the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders and an end to all immigration, achieved significant gains. In 2001 the government decriminalized the use of cannabis as in other Western nations, namely the Netherlands, Italy, Portugal, and Spain. As part of Belgium’s commitment to the single European currency, Euro notes and coins were adopted in January 2002.

In a highly significant move, in February 2002, the government formally apologized for its part in the death of Patrice Lumumba, president of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Belgium’s former colony, in 1961. The government expressed its “sincere regrets” at the killing, and accepted “moral responsibility” for his death and issued an apology to his family and the Congolese people. The government also set up a fund in Lumumba’s name.

A suit brought by Palestinians, under Belgium’s “universal jurisdiction” law, to prosecute Israeli prime minister Ariel Sharon for involvement in war crimes concerning the massacres of Palestinians by Lebanese Christians at the Shatila and Sabre refugee camps in 1982 was given a provisional go-ahead by the Belgian courts. Under the ruling, Sharon was liable to face prosecution once he left office. He was the most high profile of a number of world leaders who faced similar action under Belgium’s 1993 law. The legislation was dropped in August 2003.

Prime Minister Verhofstadt called a general election for May 18, 2003; his party secured 25 seats and with the support of the French and Flemish Socialists parties (with 25 and 23 seats respectively) seemed set to secure his second coalition government. In the following year’s European elections the 24 seats were won by a total of 10 different parties.

In what was termed the “trial of the century” Marc Dutroux was convicted in June 2004 of kidnapping and raping six girls and murdering four of them. He was sentenced to life imprisonment. In November 2004 the Vlaams Blok political party was declared racist and subsequently disbanded. In the general election held in June 2007 the ruling coalition suffered significant losses, with the Flemish Liberal Democrats gaining just 18 seats, one more than Vlaams Belang the successor party to Vlaams Blok and 12 fewer than the Flemish Christian Democrats, the biggest winners. Verhoftstadt tendered his resignation after the defeat. The Flemish Christian Democrat leader Yves Leterme, in favour of greater autonomy for the regions, was expected to form Belgium’s next ruling coalition as prime minister but inter-party wrangling over devolution issues led to a political impasse that lasted nine months. Verhofstadt was re-sworn in as caretaker prime minister while negotiations continued. Finally, in March 2008, Leterme was sworn in as prime minister. The government was backed in a confidence vote the same month. Proposals for constitutional reform to try to end the political deadlock surrounding devolution were set for July 2008.