II.

Land and Resources

The islands of Japan are the projecting summits of a huge chain of mountains originally a part of the continent of Asia, from which they were detached in the Cenozoic era. The long and narrow main island, Honshu, measures less than 322 km (200 mi) at its greatest breadth. The coastline of Japan is exceedingly long in proportion to the area of the islands, and totals, with the many bays and indentations, about 24,950 km (15,500 mi). The greatest amount of indentation is on the Pacific coast, the result of the erosive action of the tides and severe coastal storms. The western coast of Kyushu, on the East China Sea, is the most irregular portion of the Japanese coast. Few navigable inlets are found on the eastern coast above Tokyo, but south of Tokyo Bay are many of the best bays and harbours in Japan. Between Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu is the Inland Sea, dotted with islands and connected with the Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Japan by three narrow straits through which oceanic storms rarely pass. The western coast of the islands of Japan, on the almost tideless Sea of Japan, is relatively straight and measures less than 4,830 km (3,000 mi); the only conspicuous indentations in the coastline are Wakasa and Toyama bays in Honshu.

Topographically, Japan is a rugged land of high mountains and deep valleys, with many small plains. Because of the alternating sequence of mountain and valley, and the rocky soil, only an estimated 11 per cent of Japan is arable land.

The Japanese plains lie chiefly along the lower courses of the principal rivers, on plateaux along the lowest slopes of mountain ranges, and on lowlands along the sea coast. The most extensive plains are in Hokkaido: along the Ishikari River in the western part of the island, along the Tokachi River in the south-east, and around the cities of Nemuro and Kushiro on the east-central shore. Honshu has several large plains. The Osaka plain contains the cities of Kōbe, Kyoto, and Osaka; the Kantō plain is the site of Tokyo; and Nagoya is the main city of the plain of Nobi. The Tsukushi plain is the most important level area in Kyushu.

The mountains of Japan are the most conspicuous feature of the topography. Mountain ranges extend across the islands from north to south, the main chains sending off smaller ranges that branch out laterally or run parallel to the parent range, and frequently descend to the coast, where they form bays and harbours. In the north, the island of Hokkaido is marked by a volcanic range that descends from the Kurils and merges in the south-western part of the island with a chain branching from Point Soya in the north-western tip. These mountains branch into two lines near Uchiura Bay, on the south-western coast, and reappear on the island of Honshu in two parallel ranges. The minor range, situated entirely in the north-east, separates the valley of the Kitakami River from the Pacific Ocean. The main range continues towards the south-west until it meets a mass of intersecting ridges that enclose the plateau of the Shinano River and forms a belt of mountains, the highest in Japan, across the widest part of the island. The highest peak, at 3,776 m (12,389 ft), is Fuji, an extinct volcano near Yokohama, which, because of its unique height and shape, and exceptional beauty, is one of the favourite themes of Japanese art. One of the subsidiary chains in the central mountain mass is called the Japanese Alps because of the grandeur of the landscape; the highest elevation in the chain is Mount Yariga (3,180 m/10,433 ft). Farther south is another chain of high peaks of which Mount Shirane (3,192 m/10,472 ft) is the highest. The islands of Shikoku and Kyushu are dotted with mountain ranges, although none contains any peak higher than Ishizuchi (1,981 m/6,500 ft) on the island of Shikoku. Volcanoes are common in the Japanese mountains; some 200 volcanoes are known, about 50 of which are still active. Thermal springs and volcanic areas emitting gases are exceedingly numerous.

A.

Rivers and Lakes

Although Japan is abundantly watered—almost every valley has a stream—no long navigable rivers exist. The larger Japanese rivers vary in size from swollen freshets during the spring thaw or the summer rainy season to small streams during dry weather. Successions of rapids and shallows are so common that only boats of extremely shallow draught can navigate. The longest river in Japan is the Shinano, on Honshu, which is about 370 km (230 mi) long; other large rivers on Honshu are the Tone, Kitakami, Tenryu, and Mogami. The important rivers of Hokkaido include the second-largest river of Japan, the Ishikari, and the Teshio and Tokachi. The Yoshino is the longest river in Shikoku. The many Japanese lakes are noted for their scenic beauty. Some are located in the river valleys, but the majority are mountain lakes, and many are summer resorts. The largest lake in Japan is Biwa, on Honshu, which covers about 685 sq km (265 sq mi).

B.

Earthquakes

Earthquakes are frequent in Japan. A survey showed that seismic disturbances, mostly of a minor nature, occurred more than three times a day. Geological research has shown that, possibly under the continuous impact of these disturbances, the western coast of the Japanese islands is settling, while the Pacific coast is rising. The eastern coast is subject to earthquakes affecting large areas and usually accompanied by great tidal waves; these shocks seem to begin at the bottom of the ocean near the north-eastern coast of Honshu, where a gigantic crater is thought to exist more than 8 km (5 mi) below the surface. The most disastrous earthquake in Japanese history occurred in 1923. It was centred in Sagami Bay and damaged Tokyo and Yokohama; about 150,000 people were killed by the earthquake and its aftermath. The most damaging post-war earthquake was the Great Hashin Earthquake of 1995, which struck the port of Kōbe and killed some 5,000 people; its magnitude was roughly 7 on the Richter scale.

C.

Climate

The Japanese islands extend through approximately 17° of latitude, and Japan’s climatic conditions vary widely. Average mean temperatures range from about 5° C (41° F) in Nemuro (Hokkaido) to about 16° C (61° F) on Okinawa. Short summers and severe long winters characterize Hokkaido and the northern part of Honshu. The severity of the winters is caused in great part by the north-western winds blowing from Siberia and the cold Okhotsk (or Oyashio) Current, which flows south into the Sea of Japan. To the south and east of this region the winters are considerably moderated by the influence of the warm Kuroshio (or Japan) Current. In Shikoku, Kyushu, and southern Honshu the summers are hot and humid, almost subtropical, and the winters are mild with comparatively little snow. Japan lies in the path of the south-eastern monsoons, which add considerably to the oppressive humidity of the summers. Yearly precipitation ranges from about 1,015 mm (40 in) on Hokkaido to 3,810 mm (150 in) in the mountains of central Honshu. From June to October tropical cyclones, also called typhoons, occur: they can cause great damage, especially to shipping.

D.

Natural Resources

The most important natural resources of Japan are primarily agricultural. Although arable land is limited, Japan has some of the highest crop yields per land area sown in the world, and the country produces about 71 per cent of its food. Japan’s large hydroelectric power potential has been extensively developed, but mineral resources are limited. The country is obliged to import most of its mineral requirements. Geothermal power is a potentially great, as yet unexploited, resource.

E.

Plants and Animals

The great variety and luxuriance of Japanese plant life is mainly caused by the heat and moisture of Japanese summers, as well as Japan’s proximity to the Eurasian mainland. More than 17,000 species of flowering and non-flowering plants are found, and many are widely cultivated. The white and red plum and the cherry bloom early and are particularly admired. The Japanese hills are colourful with azaleas in April, and the tree peony, one of the most popular cultivated flowers, blossoms at the beginning of May. The lotus blooms in August, and in November the blooming of the chrysanthemum occasions one of the most celebrated of the numerous Japanese flower festivals. Other flowers include the pimpernel, bluebell, gladiolus, and many varieties of lily. Few wild flowers are found, because the small area of arable land permits little space for uncultivated vegetation in the plains.

The predominant variety of Japanese tree is the conifer; a common species is the sugi, or Japanese cedar, which sometimes attains a height of 46 m (150 ft). Other evergreens include the larch, spruce, and many varieties of fir. In Kyushu, Shikoku, and southern Honshu subtropical trees, such as the bamboo, camphor tree, and banyan are found, and the tea plant and wax tree are cultivated. In central and northern Honshu the trees are those of the Temperate Zone, such as the beech, willow, chestnut, and many conifers. Lacquer and mulberry trees are cultivated extensively, and the cypress, yew, box, holly, and myrtle are plentiful. In Hokkaido the vegetation is subarctic and similar to that of southern Siberia. Spruce, larch, and northern fir are the most common trees; some forests contain alders, poplars, and beeches. The most common Japanese fruits are peaches, pears, and oranges.

The Japanese practise a unique kind of landscape gardening. Japanese gardens attempt to reproduce in miniature a stylization of natural landscapes. The Japanese also cultivate dwarf trees, such as the cherry and plum, which, through skilful pruning, are kept as small as 30 cm (12 in). The potted flora that are dwarfed by special methods of culture are called “bonsai”.

As compared with its luxuriant flora, Japan suffers a dearth of animal life. Yet Japanese fauna includes at least 140 species of mammals, 450 species of birds, and a wide variety of reptiles, batrachians (frogs and toads), and fish. The only primate mammal is the red-faced monkey, the Japanese macaque, found throughout Honshu. The carnivores include the red bear, black bear, and brown bear. Foxes are found throughout Japan, as are badgers. Other fur-bearing animals include the wild boar, marten, Japanese mink, otter, weasel, and several varieties of seal. Hares and rabbits are numerous, as are rodents, which include squirrels, flying squirrels, rats, and mice, although the common house mouse is not found. Many varieties of bat exist; insectivores include the Japanese mole and shrew mouse. Of the two species of deer, the more common is the small Japanese deer, which has a spotted white coat in summer and a brown coat in winter.

The sparrow, house swallow, and thrush are the commonest Japanese birds. Water birds constitute almost 25 per cent of the known species and include the crane, heron, swan, duck, cormorant, stork, and albatross. Songbirds are numerous, the bullfinch and two varieties of nightingale being the best known. Among other common birds are the robin, cuckoo, woodpecker, pheasant, and pigeon.

The coastal waters of Japan teem with fish, which are caught in enormous quantities for use as fresh food or for canning and also for fertilizer. Various seaweeds are also eaten.

F.

Environmental Concerns

Japan has limited sources of traditional natural energy yet it sustains a rapidly expanding industrial sector and a large population with one of the highest standards of living in the world. To do this it has aggressively followed a nuclear energy path and currently derives around 32 per cent of its energy from nuclear power, with plans to increase this to 60 per cent by about 2030. There are 53 nuclear plants in operation (1998). Plant siting with regard to earthquake hazards, nuclear waste storage, importation of nuclear fuel, and export of spent fuel for reprocessing pose major environmental and security risks. Japan had a huge stockpile of plutonium as of the early 1990s. Other sources of energy include hydroelectric power, coal, and oil. Even with its reliance on nuclear power, Japan still produces almost 5 per cent of global greenhouse gas emissions. The government has outlined national strategies to deal with these and other issues.

Japan's economy has generated many problems familiar to other industrialized countries. Some, such as air pollution, are more severe because of the high concentration of urban areas. Sulphur dioxide concentrations have fallen significantly in response to environmental regulation, but nitrogen oxides, which contribute to acid rain and health problems, are still an issue. Water quality has improved steadily since the 1970s, but many bodies of water still fall foul of standards relating to permissible levels of organic waste substances. Increases in household waste in the 1980s were among the highest in the world, and Japan faces a severe shortage of landfill sites.

The nature conservation ethic in Japan is strong. Protected forests and special game reserves were already a long-standing tradition by the time Japan entered the modern Western-influenced era in the mid-19th century. Today forests cover about 67 per cent (1995) of the country, although most of these are commercial plantations. Despite its own substantial forests, Japan is among the world's largest importers of timber. Currently there are 28 major national parks and more than 350 lesser parks, covering more than 14 per cent of the country. An extensive series of wildlife reserves and special sanctuaries covers more than 8 per cent of the land. At least 28 marine parks have also been established. The Nature Conservation Law of 1972 requires that all natural systems be inventoried every five years, a mandate that the government has kept with the help of volunteers and non-government organizations.

Japan is among the few Asian countries to have ratified the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. By 1980 it had declared four biosphere reserves under the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Man and the Biosphere Program. Other international environmental agreements ratified include those concerning the Antarctic Treaty, biodiversity, climate change, endangered species, environmental modification, hazardous wastes, marine dumping, nuclear test ban, ozone layer, ship pollution, and tropical timber.