II.

Land and Resources

Kazakhstan is composed of a vast, generally low-lying plain, fringed by mountains on the east and south-east. Differences in elevation in the republic are extreme. Mountainous areas along the border with Kyrgyzstan reach a height of nearly 5,000 m (16,400 ft), while considerable areas near the Caspian Sea lie below sea level. The Caspian Sea, the lowest point in Europe, lies at an elevation of about 28 m (91.9 ft) below sea level, while the Karagiye Depression, located to the east of the Caspian, lies at an even lower elevation. With a depth of 132 m (about 433 ft) below sea level, the Karagiye Depression is the lowest point in the former USSR.

A.

Rivers and Lakes

Most of Kazakhstan’s major rivers drain internally, mainly into Lake Zaysan, Lake Balqash, and the Aral and Caspian seas. Diversion of river water from the Syr Darya and Ili rivers, principally for irrigation purposes, has led to a decline in the surface level of the Aral Sea and Lake Balqash. A few rivers, such as the Ishim, Irtysh, and Tobol, flow north to the Arctic Ocean. The riverbeds of most of the small and medium-size rivers remain dry for much of the year. Precipitation is meagre and generally decreases southward. Deserts and semi-deserts, including stone, salt, and sand wastelands, cover more than two thirds of the country’s surface area.

B.

Climate

The climate of Kazakhstan is extremely continental, and, owing to the vastness of the country, characterized by great internal variations. Average daily temperature in January ranges from -19° to -4° C (-2.2° to 24.8° F), while the average daily temperature in July is 19° to 26° C (66.2° to 78.8° F). In the summer temperatures can reach 45° C (113° F), and in the winter temperatures can fall below -45° C (-49° F). Rainfall also shows great variation, with an annual average of 1,500 mm (59 in) in mountainous areas to less than 100 mm (4 in) in central desert areas.

C.

Natural Resources

The mineral wealth of Kazakhstan, including chromite, copper, gold, iron ore, lead, manganese, silver, and tungsten, made it a main source of supply for the former Soviet Union. Oil and gas reserves in the area have recently begun to be exploited, and it was estimated at the end of 1996 that 0.8 per cent of the world reserves of oil and 1.3 per cent of natural gas reserves were in Kazakhstan.

D.

Plants and Animals

The desert and semi-desert areas support a vegetation cover of white and black wormwood, fescue, and sand sedge and, in the northern steppe zone, groves of birch and aspen are common. In the steppe zone mixed grass vegetation predominates, with pine forests being found along river banks. The steppes and forests support a diverse population of hares, hamsters, Siberian polecats, brown bears, snow leopards, lynx, wild boar, roe deer, and wolverine, while Caspian deer, musk deer, mountain goats, and the rare and protected Saiga antelope inhabit the desert and mountain areas.

E.

Environmental Concerns

Kazakhstan faces potentially severe health and environmental problems from the legacy of the Cold War. High levels of radiation have resulted from the dismantling of nuclear weapons factories, and from years of above-ground and below-ground nuclear testing. The former Soviet nuclear testing site near Semey is still heavily contaminated. Industrial pollution is also heavy in many cities.

The Aral Sea continues to suffer from the effects of run-off that is polluted by fertilizers and pesticides, and falling water levels caused by over-extraction of water for irrigation purposes have caused severe problems for fisheries projects. In the period from 1961 to 1974 the average surface area of the Aral Sea was 61,836 sq km (23,701 sq mi), but by the period from 1974 to 1985 the average had declined to 51,110 sq km (19,733 sq mi). Kazakhstan, along with neighbours Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and Tajikistan, has formed the Fund for Saving the Aral Sea (Ifas). Plans are advancing to build a dam separating two sections of the sea, in order to preserve the northern part at the expense of the southern part. In late 2003 Kazakhstan was one of five Caspian Sea nations to sign a framework treaty aimed at reducing the amount of sewage and waste emptied into the sea.