II.

Early History

The Celts are generally associated with the Iron Age in Europe. Their origins lie in the late Bronze Age Urnfield cultures (a group of related cultures characterized by clusters of cremation burials in pottery vessels), which were widely dispersed throughout eastern and central Europe during the period 1300-800 bc.

The earliest archaeological evidence associated with the Celts places them in what is now France and western Germany in the late Bronze Age, around 1200 bc. In the early Iron Age, they are associated with the Hallstatt culture (8th-5th century bc), named after an archaeological site in Upper Austria. The late Hallstatt period (6th century bc) is sometimes known as the Age of Princes, on account of spectacular burials (such as that as Hochdorf) and impressive hillforts (such as that as Heuneburg). Both these developments may have been caused by an explosion of wealth, which made possible rich burials and also necessitated more elaborate defensive building.

Between the 5th and 1st centuries bc, Celtic influence extended from Spain to the shores of the Black Sea. This later Iron Age phase is called La Tène, after a site in Switzerland. In the 4th to 3rd centuries bc, instability affected the Celtic world, perhaps caused by pressure from non-Celtic peoples to the north. Migrations occurred, and Celts invaded the Graeco-Roman world; they overran northern Italy Macedonia, and Thessaly. They plundered Rome in 390, and sacked Delphi in 279. Some migrated to Asia Minor.

The Celts of northern Italy were eventually subjugated by the Romans in the 2nd century bc; Transalpine Gaul (much of southern France) was subdued by Julius Caesar in the 1st century bc, and most of Britain came under Roman rule in the 1st century ad. On the Continent the Celts were assimilated into the Roman Empire, and lost their independent culture. In Britain, however, the Celtic language and culture survived better. In medieval and modern times the Celtic tradition and languages survived in Brittany (in western France), Wales, the Scottish Highlands, and Ireland.