I.

Introduction

Guyana, in full, Cooperative Republic of Guyana, republic on the northern coast of South America, formerly British Guiana, a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. It is bordered on the north by the Atlantic Ocean, on the east by Suriname, on the south by Brazil, and on the west by Brazil and Venezuela. There is an ongoing territorial dispute between Guyana and Venezuela regarding the region west of the Essequibo river; likewise, Suriname claims a small triangular portion of south-east Guyana. The country achieved independence on May 26, 1966. Guyana has an area of 214,969 sq km (83,000 sq mi); its coastline is about 435 km (270 mi) long. The capital is Georgetown.

II.

Land and Resources

Guyana can be divided into three major geographical regions. A belt of alluvial soil, varying in width from about 8 to 65 km (5 to 40 mi) and mostly below sea level, extends along the coast and is protected by a system of dams and dykes. To the south lies the dense forest area that makes up about four fifths of the country. The forests extend into an interior highland region with a maximum elevation, at Mount Roraima, of 2,772 m (9,094 ft). Beyond the forest lies a region of savannah.

A.

Rivers and Lakes

Several important rivers—the Essequibo, Demerara, Courantyne, and Berbice—flow northwards across Guyana, although many are chemically polluted. The rivers are navigable by ocean-going freighters only to about 100 to 160 km (60 to 100 mi) from the sea; further inland, navigation is not possible because of rapids and falls. Some of the rivers form spectacular waterfalls, notably Kaieteur Falls (226 m/741 ft high), on the Potaro River, one of the highest single-drop waterfalls in the world.

B.

Climate

Guyana has a tropical climate, with little seasonal temperature change. The annual rainfall (about 2,280 mm/90 in) on the coast occurs mainly from April to August and November to January. The savannah region receives some 1,525 mm (60 in) of rain annually, mainly from April to September.

C.

Natural Resources

The important mineral deposits of Guyana include bauxite, copper, gold, and diamonds. The timber from its forests are also important, although there are environmental concerns about deforestation. Some oil is located offshore.

The plants and trees of Guyana are noted for their great size; the giant water lily is common. The dense forests contain excellent woods, such as greenheart and mora, for use in the timber industry. The animal life is varied and includes deer, anteater, and two species of monkey. Among the birds are manakin, sugarbird, and cotinga; the diversity of brilliantly coloured birds and insects is considerable.

D.

Environmental Concerns

Guyana is a sparsely populated country with vast but fragile forests and mineral resources. Most of Guyana’s population lives along the coast in an area of intensive agriculture. In this region there is considerable pollution. About 94 per cent (1995) of the country is forested, mostly with tropical rainforest, although dry forests occur in the north. Deforestation is accelerating rapidly. Other threats to forests include brush fires, soil erosion, and overhunting or poaching of wildlife. Mangroves are a critical coastal habitat and resource, providing biodiversity, breeding areas for fish, and protection against erosion by the sea. Mangroves are seriously threatened and inadequately protected. Guyana has formulated a National Environmental Policy and a Forest Action Plan, which address major issues of resource use, pollution control, and protection of the environment and indigenous peoples. However, there are few effective environmental laws, and the existing ones are not well enforced. Resources for managing protected areas are scarce. The protected system is limited to one national park, although plans to greatly expand the system have been introduced.

A serious threat to potential protected land is the major road linking Brazil and the Guyana coast, and the government-approved logging concessions along its length. Foreign companies are vying for huge logging contracts in the interior. Mining interests, especially for gold and diamonds, conflict with conservation plans. In 1995 a gold-mining operation spilled cyanide-treated waste water into the 1,010 km (630 mi) Essequibo, resulting in a major health threat to humans and wildlife downstream. The Programme for Sustainable Tropical Forestry in Guyana, funded by the World Bank and the United Nations (UN), seeks to establish a Global Environment Facility that would set up special protected forest areas and study sites with the aim of researching methods of sustainable use of tropical forests. Guyana works with neighbouring countries through the Amazon Cooperation Treaty, which provides for conservation-oriented development strategies in the Amazon region. Guyana is party to international treaties on biodiversity, climate change, endangered species, law of the sea, ozone layer, tropical timber, and whaling.

III.

Population

Slightly more than 50 per cent of the total population of Guyana is made up of East Indians whose ancestors came from the Indian subcontinent. About 36 per cent of the people are of black African descent, and some 7 per cent are of mixed background. Approximately 7 per cent are Native Americans. In addition, small numbers of Europeans and Chinese live in Guyana. About 90 per cent of the population lives along the coast, and about 61 per cent resides in rural areas.

A.

Population Characteristics

Guyana has a population of 769,095 (2007 estimate), giving the country an overall population density of about 3.9 people per sq km (10 per sq mi). Georgetown, the capital and principal port, has a population of 275,000 (1999 estimate). Smaller population centres include the port of New Amsterdam (25,000) and the mining community of Linden (formerly called Mackenzie-Wismar-Christianburg; 35,000).

B.

Religion

About 50 per cent of the population is Christian, most being Anglican or Roman Catholic. The remainder are mainly Hindus (33 per cent) or Muslims (9 per cent).

C.

Language

The official language is English, which is mainly a second language but is spoken as a first language by some blacks and Hindustanis. Nearly all the population speaks Guyanese Creole English, an English-based creole. Caribbean Hindustani is also spoken by some, mainly older, people from the Hindustani ethnic group. Eight Native American languages are spoken, notably Macushi (7,000), Aruma (6,000), and Patamona (4,700).

D.

Education

In 1998–1999 107,207 pupils were enrolled in 422 primary schools in Guyana. Some 100 secondary, technical, and teacher-training institutions had a total of approximately 66,495 students. The country’s principal institution of higher education, the University of Guyana (1963), in Georgetown, was attended by about 3,350 students. In 2002–2003 the government spent 9.1 per cent of gross national product (GNP) on education and adult literacy stood at 99 per cent.

E.

Culture

Until its independence, Guyana was tied culturally more closely to Suriname and French Guiana than to the rest of South America. Guyana was settled by East Indians, who still speak Urdu, Hindi, and Tamil dialects; black Africans; and a few Europeans, mostly from Great Britain. These various ethnic strains have remained fairly distinct, and today each group has its own style of life and culture, although the ties of nationhood tend to bind them together.

IV.

Economy

Immediately before independence in 1966, Guyana was in the early stages of developing its resources. The development continued under an economic plan drawn up by British, United States, and Canadian experts. Manufacturing, which was on a small scale in the late 1960s, was expanded in the 1970s, but in the mid-1990s the economy of Guyana was dominated by agriculture, mining, and service industries. The widespread deregulation of the economy fuelled production and investment, but the country still suffers from a high level of foreign debt, which stood at US$2,200 million in 1994. Tourism in Guyana, particularly ecotourism, has been encouraged by the government. In 2005 there were 116,596 visitors to Guyana, bringing in US$40 million. GNP in 2004 was US$765 million, giving a per capita income of about US$1,020.

A.

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing

Agriculture accounts for about 31 per cent of the gross domestic product (GDP) and employs about 28 per cent of the workforce. Sugar and its by-products and rice account for most of the agricultural exports; 33 million tonnes of sugar cane and 501,500 tonnes of rice were produced annually in 2005. Coconuts, coffee, cacao, citrus fruit, maize, manioc, and other tropical fruit and vegetables are grown primarily for home consumption. Large areas of rough pasture exist in the interior savannahs. Substantial numbers of cattle, pigs, sheep, and chickens are raised.

Cultivation is confined almost entirely to the narrow coastal strip of rich, alluvial soil. Agricultural expansion requires heavy expenditures for protection against flooding and for drainage and irrigation, because part of the strip is below the high-tide mark of the sea and rivers and because of the heavy seasonal rainfall. The government of Guyana is making efforts to increase the amount of land available for cultivation through reclamation projects.

In 2005 about 1,276,009 cu m (45.1 million cu ft) of wood was harvested from Guyana’s extensive forests. Almost all of the harvest was made up of hardwoods, used mainly in construction and furniture-making and as fuel. Timber is one of Guyana’s main exports. Fishing is concentrated along the Atlantic coast. The annual catch in 2004 was about 57,325 tonnes. Shrimp are a valuable product.

B.

Mining

Guyana is a major producer of bauxite; about 1.5 million tonnes were mined in 2004. Gold and diamonds are also produced.

C.

Manufacturing

Manufacturing in Guyana is largely limited to processing bauxite, sugar, rice, and timber. Rum is one of the important manufactures.

D.

Energy

In the mid-1990s Guyana had an installed electricity-generating capacity of about 157,000 kW, and annual production was some 779 million kWh in 2003, 99 per cent of which was generated in thermal facilities. The country has a great potential for producing hydroelectricity.

E.

Currency and Banking

The monetary unit of Guyana is the Guyana dollar of 100 cents (190.01 Guyana dollars equalled US$1; early 2007). The Bank of Guyana (1965) is the central bank.

F.

Commerce and Trade

The chief exports of Guyana are sugar, bauxite, gold, shrimp, rum, rice, and timber. The principal imports are petroleum products, machinery, foodstuffs, tobacco, cotton fabrics, and footwear. In 2004, imports cost an estimated US$636 million, and exports earned about US$543 million.

G.

Transport

Guyana has about 7,970 km (4,952 mi) of roads, most of which are near the coast. The 24,000 passenger cars gave a ratio of 22 people for every car. The country is served by only about 88 km (55 mi) of railway line. Guyana’s seaports are Georgetown, Linden, Parika, and New Amsterdam. The rivers provide an important means of access to the interior, providing 6,000 km (3,728 mi) of navigable waterways. The national airline is Guyana Airways, which provides domestic and international services. The main airport, Timehri International, is near Georgetown.

H.

Communications

Guyana had some 30,300 telephones in the mid-1990s; radio-telephone links are frequently the only efficient means of communication with the interior. The government operates broadcasting services. In 2000 approximately 425,000 radios and 70,000 televisions were in use.

V.

Government

Guyana is governed under a constitution adopted in 1980.

A.

Executive and Legislature

The head of state and chief executive of Guyana is a president, elected to a five-year term of office by the National Assembly. The president appoints a Cabinet, headed by a prime minister.

Legislative power in Guyana is vested in the unicameral National Assembly, which is made up of 12 non-elected members and 53 members elected to five-year terms under a system of proportional representation.

B.

Judiciary

The law of Guyana is based mostly on English common and statute law. The highest tribunal of the country is the Supreme Court of Judicature, which is divided into a court of appeal, a high court, and several courts of summary jurisdiction.

C.

Local Government

Guyana is divided into ten regions. Each region is governed by a council.

D.

Political Parties

The People’s National Congress (PNC; founded 1957) held power from independence until 1992, when the People’s Progressive Party (PPP; 1950) won a parliamentary majority. The PNC is largely supported by the black African population, while the PPP is Indian-dominated. Other parties to gain seats at the 2006 general election include the Alliance for Change (formed 2005), the United Force (1960), and the Guyana Action Party/Rise, Organize and Rebuild Guyana (GAP/ROAR) coalition.

E.

Health and Welfare

The Guyanese government provides social assistance, including old-age pensions and relief for the aged, the infirm, and destitute children; delinquency services; and community services. Public-health measures have eliminated malaria as a major problem. In 2004 there were 2,075 people for every doctor, and the infant mortality rate, in 2007, was 31.4 deaths per 1,000 births. Life expectancy at birth is 63.5 years for men and 69 years for women (2007). In total, the government spent 10.37 per cent of GDP on health in 1990.

F.

Defence

The armed forces of Guyana are organized in one group, called the Guyana Defence Forces, which in 2004 had about 1,100 members.

G.

International Organizations

Guyana is a member of the United Nations (UN), the Commonwealth of Nations, the World Trade Organization (WTO), CARICOM, Inter-American Development Bank (IADB), and the Organization of American States (OAS).

VI.

History

Before the arrival of European explorers, what is now Guyana was inhabited by tribes of Arawak, Carib, and Warrau Native Americans. It was first charted by Spanish explorers in 1499. By the mid-18th century Dutch settlers and traders had prevailed over rival Spanish and British expeditions. Although formal possession fell to the British in 1814, the Dutch system of administration persisted during most of the pre-colonial period (the colony of British Guiana came into being in 1831). During the years of British rule, the Native American population was reduced to a tiny minority by large influxes of African and East Indian peoples. Guyana received its first constitution under the British administration in 1928, but universal suffrage was not granted until 1953.

In 1961 Guyana achieved full internal self-government, and the People’s Progressive Party (PPP), under the leadership of Dr Cheddi Jagan, gained a majority in the legislative assembly. In 1962 Jagan introduced a programme of severe economic austerity that caused violent riots and a general strike. British troops were called in to restore order in February 1962 and again in 1963. In 1963 the disorders took on racial overtones; people of African descent clashed with the East Indian supporters of Jagan. When calm was restored, the nation was left on the brink of economic chaos.

Following constitutional conferences between Guyana and Great Britain in 1962 and 1963, elections were held in late 1964. The PPP again received the most votes, but failed to gain a majority. The British government thereupon called on Forbes Burnham, leader of the minority People’s National Congress (PNC), to form a coalition government.

A.

Independence

In 1965 the British Guiana Independence Conference met in London, and a new constitution was approved. On May 26, 1966, Guyana was declared an independent nation. It joined the UN in 1966. Guyana became a charter member of the Caribbean Free Trade Area (CARIFTA) in 1968. Elections that year confirmed Burnham in office. On February 23, 1970, Guyana was proclaimed a republic, and Arthur Chung was named president. The PNC won again in 1973.

In the early 1970s Guyana established diplomatic relations with China and several other communist nations. In the economic sphere, an investment plan was adopted in 1973, calling for expenditure of US$1.15 billion by 1976. The country aimed at self-sufficiency in agriculture, the development of oil resources, and a greater voice in the development of its bauxite deposits and profits from them. The government assumed control of all foreign trade in 1974.

Guyana was the scene of the Jonestown mass suicide and murder in 1978, when more than 900 members of a religious cult, primarily US citizens, took poison on orders of their leader, James Warren (“Jim”) Jones.

In 1978 the term of the National Assembly was extended for a year beyond its five-year limit in anticipation of a new constitution; it was extended again in 1979. After the new constitution was put into effect in 1980, Prime Minister Forbes Sampson Burnham was elected president and given most state powers. The PNC retained its overwhelming majority in the assembly, but an international team of observers questioned the validity of Burnham’s victory. He governed until his death in 1985, and was succeeded by Desmond Hoyte. Elections that same year confirmed PNC control of the assembly and Hoyte as president. Hoyte remained in office until October 1992, when, in an internationally supervised election, Jagan and his People’s Progressive Party (PPP) returned to power.

B.

Recent Elections

The elections of December 1997, won by Janet Jagan (wife of Cheddi Jagan, who died in March 1997) and the PPP, were disputed by the PNC, although the elections were declared fair by international observers. The dispute sparked rioting by PNC-supporters. In early 1998 a compromise decision to allow fresh elections in 1999 was agreed and Janet Jagan was appointed president.

In April 1998 the government was forced to declare a state of emergency after prolonged lack of rain led to forest fires, and severely disrupted agriculture, gold mining, and even the supply of drinking water. Political and racial unrest simmered until June when rioters set fire to the finance ministry. The situation was brought under control by a deal brokered by CARICOM, in which the PNC opposition agreed to return to the national assembly after a seven-month boycott.

A Constitutional Reform Commission was established in January 1999. In its report to the National Assembly, it called for greater autonomy and cultural rights for Guyana's indigenous peoples, stronger environmental protection, reform of the electoral system to embrace proportionality, and the creation of an Indigenous Peoples Commission to look into the question of land rights. President Jagan resigned in August due to ill health; she was succeeded by the finance minister Bharrat Jagdeo. Tensions mounted in October when Venezuela resurrected a border dispute, while in February 2000, festivities were held to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the republic's foundation. The border dispute with Venezuela continued into 2000, a year that also saw Guyana close to war with Suriname over an oil-drilling venture by a Canadian company, operating with Guyana’s permission, in the disputed Courantyne river. The company pulled out of the venture as successive rounds of talks failed to resolve the dispute.

In January 2001 the 1997 elections were declared invalid by a high court judge; however, she ruled that the PPP’s government should stay in power until the next election, held in March. The election was closely observed by a number of independent observers, and was pronounced fair. The PPP won the election and, despite opposition protests and episodes of violence, Bharrat Jagdeo was sworn in as president on March 31, 2001. An ethnic relations commission was established by the major parties in an attempt to avoid the violence surrounding the election. In May, Sam Hinds of the PPP was appointed prime minister.

Television presenter Mark Benschop was charged with treason in 2002, accused of encouraging Afro-Guyanese protestors to storm the presidential offices. The jury failed to reach a decision in 2004 and a re-trial was ordered.

Unrest fuelled by ethnic tensions between Indo- and Afro-Guyanese continued across the country. The killing of agriculture minister Satyadeow Sawh in April 2006 was claimed by many as an attempt to stoke ethnic unrest before the elections scheduled for early August. The elections were postponed for nearly a month but at the end of August Jagdeo won a second presidential term, securing more than 54 per cent of the vote.