I.

Introduction

Athletics, term denoting a group of athletic events held as contests between individuals or teams—generally amateurs—at both indoor and outdoor meetings. In the United States and many other countries the sport is called track and field. The basic categories of the sport are track events, comprising runs and walks, and field events, which include jumps and throws. Running events, which constitute the largest number of athletic events, range from the indoor 50 m (55 yd) sprint to the outdoor marathon, covering 41 km 947 m (26 mi 385 yd). In the United Kingdom and United States the distances covered were formerly expressed in yards, but since 1976, for official records, only metric distances (except for the mile), have been recognized. In Europe and for the Olympic Games, distances have always been expressed in metres. In this article, metric distances are used, with the approximate imperial measurement in parentheses.

Outdoor meetings usually are held in a stadium or athletic field built around a cinder, clay, or synthetic-compound track; the track is usually a 400 m (440 yd) oval with two turns and two long straights. Most of the field events are contested in the area enclosed by the oval. Special events include the decathlon for men, consisting of five track events and five field events, and the heptathlon for women, consisting of four field events and three running events.

II.

Sprints

The shortest and swiftest running events are sprints. Indoor sprints are run over distances of 50 and 60 m (50 and 60 yd). Outdoors, the distances are 100, 200, and 400 m (110, 220, and 440 yd). In running the sprints, the athlete crouches at the starting line, leaps into full stride at the crack of the starter’s pistol, and races to the finish line at top speed. A fast start is especially important in sprinting. Sprinters gain traction by placing their feet against metal or plastic starting blocks located behind the starting line. Starting blocks can also electronically indicate sprinters who manage to start before the starter’s pistol is sounded; this early anticipation of the start can be penalized with disqualification. The chief characteristics of efficient sprinting style are high knee lift, free-swinging arm movements, and a forward lean of about 25 degrees.

Runners may employ various strategies during sprints. In a 400 m contest a runner may achieve top speed in the first 200 m, “coast” or “float” for another 150 m, then finish the race in a final burst of speed. Some runners prefer to sprint at top speed for the first 200 or 300 m, then coast through the remaining distance. In coasting, runners conserve energy by relaxing, lengthening their stride, and allowing their momentum to carry them along at close to top speed.

III.

Hurdling

The most popular outdoor hurdling events for men and women are the 110 m (120 yd) or 100 m (110 yd) high hurdles and the 400 m (440 yd) intermediate hurdles; 200 m (220 yd) low hurdles are also run. National indoor championships are usually run over 60 m (60 yd) hurdles. High hurdles are 107 cm (3 ft 6 in), intermediate hurdles 91 cm (3 ft), and low hurdles 76 cm (2 ft 6 in) in height.

At all distances up to and including the 110 m (120 yd) hurdles, the first hurdle is 13.72 m (15 yd) from the starting line and the remaining hurdles are 9.14 m (10 yd) apart; the distance from the last hurdle to the finish line is 14.02 m (15€ yd). At distances greater than 110 m but not exceeding 200 m (220 yd), the first hurdle is 18 m (20 yd) from the starting line and the remaining hurdles are 18 m apart. At 400 m (440 yd), the first hurdle is 45 m (49‚ yd) from the starting line and the remaining hurdles are 35 m (38‚ yd) apart, leaving 43 m (46y yd) to the finish line.

In the women's 100 m hurdles, the first hurdle is 13 m (14ƒ yd) from the starting line, the remaining hurdles are 8.5 m (9‚ yd) apart, and the last hurdle is 10.5 m (11y yd) from the finish line.

Good hurdling form consists in leaning far forward and clearing each barrier smoothly without breaking the rhythm of the running stride. The first leg to clear the hurdle is brought down to the track sharply. The trailing leg meanwhile clears the hurdle at almost a right angle to the body. Running speed, flexibility, and superior coordination are important elements of success.

IV.

Middle-Distance Runs

Races ranging from 600 m or 600 yd (indoors) to 3,000 m (2 mi) are known as middle-distance events. The most popular distances are the 800 m (880 yd), 1,500 m (called the metric mile) or 1 mi, and 3,000 m (2 mi) runs. The most popular of these middle-distance events is the mile, which top runners regularly complete in under 3 minutes 50 seconds. The first runner to break the 4-minute barrier was the Englishman Roger Bannister, who achieved a time of 3 minutes 59.4 seconds in 1954.

Competitors in the longer middle-distance runs must regulate their speed carefully in order to avoid exhaustion. Some middle-distance runners change their speed several times during a race, while others strive to maintain an even pace throughout. Finnish runner Paavo Nurmi, who won a gold medal for the 1,500 m run at the 1924 Olympics, carried a stopwatch during races as a means of checking on his pace. The running form that is best suited to middle-distance events differs from that employed in the sprints. Knee action is much less pronounced, the stride is shorter, and the lean forward is less extreme.

V.

Distance Runs

Runs longer than 3,000 m (2 mi) are considered to be distance events. Distance running is especially popular in Europe, where races of 5,000 (3 mi) to 10,000 m (6 mi) are frequently held. In the running style employed by champion distance runners, any excess motion is avoided. The knee action is slight, arm movements are reduced to a minimum, and the strides are shorter than those used in sprinting or middle-distance running.

Among the most gruelling distance runs are the cross-country and marathon races. Unlike other distance races, which are held on flat tracks of varying composition, cross-country races are run over rough, rolling terrain. Because of the varying conditions and sites, no world records are kept for cross-country racing. Marathons usually are run on paved roads. Runners in both events must learn to ascend hills with short, efficient strides and to descend hills rapidly without jarring themselves or upsetting their pace. A steady, even pace is essential.

Cross-country races seldom exceed 14.5 km (9 mi). The marathon run, in contrast, is an exacting race over a course of 41 km 947 m (26 mi 385 yd). In the United States, marathon runs became very popular in the late 1970s. The Boston Marathon, which is traditionally run on Patriot’s Day (on or about April 19), has been sponsored since 1895 by the Boston Athletic Association. Other annual marathons include those run through the streets and parks of New York, Chicago, and London.

VI.

Relays

Relay races are events for teams of four in which an athlete runs a given distance, called a leg, then passes a rigid hollow tube called a baton to the succeeding team member. The pass must be accomplished within a zone extending 18 m (20 yd) at the beginning of each baton exchange. In the 4 × 100 m and 4 × 400 m relays the passer places the baton in the hand of the receiver while the receiver is facing forward. The receiver then continues the race. In longer relays, where the passer is likely to be badly fatigued, the receiver looks back and takes the baton. Ideally, receiver and passer should be in full stride and about 2 m apart when the baton is handed over. If the legs of a relay race vary in length, for example 800, 200, 200, and 400 m, the contest is called a medley relay. In so-called shuttle relays, the members of the competing teams shuttle back and forth along a single stretch of track; on completion of each leg the runner enters a zone, called the passing zone, that enables the baton receiver to start running.

VII.

Steeplechase

The steeplechase is an obstacle race, usually run over a 3,000 m course containing hurdles, water jumps, and other hazards.

VIII.

Walks

The walking events are usually held for distances ranging from 1,500 to 50,000 m (1 to 30 mi) and are especially popular in Europe and the United States. The cardinal rule of race walking is that the heel of the forward foot must touch the track before the toe of the trailing foot leaves the ground. The rule is designed to prevent running by the contestants.

IX.

High Jump

The aim in high jumping is to clear (leap over) a crossbar resting between two upright standards about 4 m (13 ft) apart. The contestant is allowed three attempts to clear each height. Most jumpers today employ the style known as the Fosbury flop to clear the bar. The Fosbury flop was named after its originator, the American jumper Dick Fosbury, who used it to win the event in the 1968 Olympic Games. To execute the flop, jumpers approach the crossbar nearly straight on; they twist on take-off, rise above the bar head first, clear the bar with their shoulders and backs oriented towards the ground, and land on the foam pad on their shoulders.

X.

Pole Vault

In pole vaulting the athlete attempts to clear a high crossbar with the aid of a flexible pole, generally from 4 to 5 m (12 to 16 ft) long, and usually made from fibreglass, which replaced bamboo or metal in the 1960s. Grasping the pole several feet from its top, the vaulter races down a short runway, digs the tip of the pole into a box or slot in the ground, flexes the pole by bringing his or her bodyweight down on it, and thereby swings upwards towards the bar as the pole straightens. As the feet near the bar, the vaulter does a virtual handstand on the pole, thrusting the body across the bar face down. The vaulter then drops on to a soft pad, called the pit, below.

Contestants get three tries at each height set by the officials; the height is increased usually by 8 to 15 cm (3 to 6 in). Three misses at a given height disqualify the vaulter; competitors are then given credit for the greatest height cleared. Misses are charged when an athlete dislodges the bar, passes to the side of or underneath the bar, touches the ground beyond with the pole, switches hands, or moves the upper hand on the pole after leaving the ground. Vaults are measured perpendicularly from the upper side of the bar to the ground. In 1988 Sergei Bubka, considered the greatest pole vaulter in history, became the first to clear 6 m (19 ft 8 in); in 1991 he became the first to exceed 6.1 m (20 ft). Pole vaulting requires good running speed, powerful shoulder muscles, and all-around gymnastic ability.

XI.

Long Jump

In long jumping (formerly called broad jumping), the contestant dashes along a runway and springs into the air from a take-off board, with the aim of covering the greatest possible distance. While still in the air the jumper throws both feet far forward of the body. Competitors take three jumps for distance, after which the best performers get three more jumps. A jump is measured along a straight line extending from the front edge of the take-off board to the mark made closest to the take-off board by any part of the jumper’s body as the jumper lands in the sand pit. The athletes are rated on their longest jump. Long jumping requires strong leg and abdominal muscles, running speed, and leg spring.

XII.

Triple Jump

The aim in the triple jump (formerly called the hop, step, and jump) is to cover the greatest distance possible in an uninterrupted series of three quick leaps. In the first phase of the sequence the jumper sprints along a running path, “hops” into the air from a take-off board, and comes down on the take-off foot. The jumper then springs or “steps” forward off the take-off foot and lands on the opposite foot. In the same motion the competitor “jumps” into the air once more and lands on both feet, in a manner similar to the long jumper.

XIII.

Shot Put

The aim in shot-putting is to propel a solid metal ball through the air for a maximum distance; the men’s shot weighs 7.26 kg (16 lb), and the women’s shot weighs 4 kg (8 lb 13 oz). The action in shot-putting is confined to a circle 2.1 m (7 ft) in diameter.

In the first phase of the event, the athlete holds the shot in the fingers of the throwing hand and rests the hand against the shoulder, holding the shot under the chin. The competitor then bounds or hops across the circle in a half crouch, building up speed; upon reaching the opposite side of the circle, he or she straightens suddenly and puts the shot with an explosive uncoiling of the arm and body. The shot is pushed into the air, not thrown.

The put must be made from the shoulder with one arm only, and the shot must not be brought behind the shoulder. Each competitor gets three throws, and the best performers are given three more throws. Measurement is from the point of impact of the shot to the inside of the circumference of the putting circle on a straight line carried through the centre of the circle. Competitors are ranked according to the distance of their longest throw. If the contestant steps outside the circle, the throw is disqualified.

XIV.

Discus Throw

The discus is a steel-rimmed hardwood or metal platter that is thrown from a circle 2.5 m (8 ft 2y in) in diameter. For men, the discus measures from 219 to 221 mm (8š to 8• in) across and 44 to 46 mm (1• to 1 in) in thickness; it weighs 2 kg (4 lb 6y oz). For women, the dimensions are 180 to 182 mm (7ˆ to 7‚ in) across, 37 to 39 mm (1y to 1š in) in thickness, and 1 kg (2 lb 3ƒ oz) in weight. The athlete holds the discus flat against the palm and forearm of the throwing arm, then whirls around rapidly and propels the discus outward with a whipping motion of the arm.

The circle is marked off by a metal rim or white line. Two straight lines extend from the centre of the circle at a 90-degree angle, and all legal throws must land in the area between these lines. Once the athletes enter the circle and begin a throw, they must not touch the ground outside the circle until the discus has landed.

Throws are measured from the point of impact to the inside circumference of the circle, on a straight line through the centre of the circle. Each competitor gets three throws, after which the best throwers are given three more. All throws are counted, and the athletes are placed according to their longest throw.

XV.

Hammer Throw

Hammer throwers compete by hurling a heavy ball attached to a length of wire that has a metal handle. The ball, wire, and handle together weigh 7.26 kg (16 lb) and form a unit no longer than 1.2 m (4 ft). The action takes place in a circle 2.1 m (7 ft) in diameter. Gripping the handle with both hands and keeping the feet stationary, the athlete whirls the ball around in a circle passing above and behind the head and just below the kneecaps. As the hammer gains momentum, the athlete suddenly whirls the body around three times to impart even greater velocity to the ball. The hammer is then released upward and outward at a 45-degree angle. If it falls outside a prescribed 90-degree arc, the throw is invalid. Each thrower gets three tries, after which the best performers are allowed three more tries. A foul (violation) is called when any part of the competitor’s body, or the hammer itself, touches the ground in or outside the circle before the hammer has been fairly released and has struck the ground. Hammer throwers are usually tall and muscular, but success in the event also requires timing and coordination. In indoor meetings a 15.9-kg (35-lb) weight is used in the same manner. The women's hammer event was introduced at the 2000 Sydney Olympics. The women’s hammer weighs 4 kg (8 lb 13 oz).

XVI.

Javelin Throw

The javelin is a steel-tipped metal spear with a minimum length of 260 cm (8 ft 6‚ in) for men and 220 cm (7 ft 2y in) for women; and a minimum weight of 800 g (1• lb) for men and 600 g (1y lb) for women. The javelin has a whipcord grip about 15 cm (6 in) long, which is located at the centre of gravity.

Two parallel lines, 4 m (13 ft 1y in) apart, mark the javelin runway. The scratch (throwing) line is a 7-cm (2•-in) wide strip, which is sunk flush in the ground and touches the front ends of the runway lines. The centre of this strip is equidistant from and located between the runway lines. From this centre point, two straight lines extend through the ends of the scratch line for a distance of 90 m (295 ft). All throws must land between these lines.

Throws are measured on a direct line from the point of impact to the centre point, but only the distance to the inner edge of the arc is recorded. Throwers must stay within the runway and not touch or cross the scratch line. The javelin must land tip first. Contestants get three throws, and the best throwers are given three more. Competitors are placed according to their best throw.

As a prelude to the throw, the contestants grasp the javelin near its centre of gravity and sprint towards a check line. As they near the line they twist to one side, draw back the javelin, and prepare to throw. Meanwhile, in order to maintain running speed while leaning back for the throw, they execute a hop or fast cross step. At the check line they pivot forward abruptly and hurl the javelin into the air. The throw is disallowed if they step across the line or if the javelin does not fall to earth point first.

XVII.

Decathlon and Heptathlon

The men’s decathlon is a two-day, ten-event contest that places a premium on stamina and versatility. The events are, in order, the 100 m sprint, long jump, shot put, high jump, 400 m run, 110 m high hurdles, discus throw, pole vault, javelin throw, and 1,500 m run. The athlete’s performance in the various events is rated against an ideal score of 10,000 points. The highest points total determines the winner. The events in the women’s heptathlon, also a two-day event, are the 100 m hurdles, high jump, shot put, 200 m run, long jump, javelin throw, and 800 m run.

XVIII.

Athletics Championships

Apart from the Olympic Games, the main international meetings are: the World Championships (first staged at Helsinki in 1983 and held biennially since 1993); the World Indoor Championships (first held in Paris in 1985 as the World Indoor Games and now staged biennially); the International Amateur Athletic Federation World Cup (first held in 1977); the IAAF World Race Walking Cup (first held in 1961 and continued biennially); the IAAF World Cup Marathon (first held at Hiroshima, Japan, in 1985 and biennially thereafter); the IAAF Women’s World Road Racing Championships (annually since 1983); the European Cup (first held in 1965 and contested annually since 1993); the European Championships, first staged in Italy in 1934 for men only (the men’s and women’s events were combined from 1946 onward and held every four years).

There are also the Asian Games, the Commonwealth Games, and the Pan-African Games; plus the Pan-American Games, the Central American and Caribbean Games, the Goodwill Games, the Pan-Arab Games, the South East Asia Games, the World Games, and the World Student Games.

XIX.

History

There is some evidence that the ancient Egyptians had organized running competitions from about 3800 bc, but the origins of athletics are basically associated with the ancient Greeks who had brought competitive athletics to a high standard by about 1300 bc. The year 776 bc is usually taken as the date for the first major Olympiad. From then the Olympian Games were held every four years until they were banned in about ad 393. For the next 1,500 years or so athletic competitions were held at a local or tribal level. Athletics were revived and established in England in the 19th century, mainly at the English public schools and the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. There were also athletic competitions at the Highland Games in Scotland, and the Lakeland Games, both dating from the early 19th century. At the latter, professional athletes competed, as they did in the Powderhall Race in Edinburgh and the Stawell Gift Handicap in Australia. The first national championships were those of England in 1866, organized by the Amateur Athletic Club. These preceded the formation of the Amateur Athletic Association in 1880. The first Olympic Games of the modern era were staged in Athens in 1896. Thereafter, the games have been held in various countries at intervals of four years, except in time of war, and gave much impetus to the development of athletics worldwide. The international governing body, the International Amateur Athletic Federation, which ratifies world records and approves rules, was formed in 1912—initially with 17 members. By 2007, 212 nations were affiliated to it.