I.

Introduction

Conscription, system of compulsory enrolment of men and women into the armed forces, also known as national service. Conscripts are distinguished from volunteers and professionals, as well as from mercenaries, who offer their service to any government solely for pay. Conscripts may be called to serve in time of peace in order to train for war; they may be called into uniform in time of emergency.

II.

History

Military service as a fundamental obligation of citizenship dates from early times. In the ancient Greek city states, young men were required to serve several years in the citizen militia, a system that reached its highest development in the citizen-soldier class of martial Sparta. In the Roman Republic, compulsory service in the militia was regarded as a privilege, and all male citizens between the ages of 17 and 60 served without pay, the older men being restricted to garrison duty. Delinquency was punished by imprisonment and confiscation of property. Towards the end of the 2nd century bc, the citizen militia was replaced by professionals and mercenaries.

When weapons were expensive, armies were small and aristocratic, as in the Middle Ages. When weapons were cheap, armies became large and democratic, as after the development of firearms. Universal compulsory service was suggested by the Italian political philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli in the 16th century, and the Swiss army was composed entirely of conscripted troops. By the 18th century, military ranks were filled by the poorest of society, and impressment and enticement were the usual methods of recruiting.

III.

Conscription in Europe

Conscription in its modern form arose in revolutionary France, where universal military service was regarded both as a Republican duty, based on the principles of equality and fraternity, and as a necessity for national survival. In August 1793, a law limited liability for service to men between the ages of 18 and 25. They registered in their localities, and the youngest were called first, the others being chosen if more men were needed. On the eve of war with Austria in 1796, France modified the procedure by instituting universal military service by age groupings for men between 20 and 25 years of age. The first age grouping consisted of men of 20 and 21 years, who provided the basic contingent of conscripts. The other age groupings served to the extent necessary to meet military requirements. Conscripted troops constituted the bulk of the French armies in the Napoleonic Wars, and more than 2.6 million men were inducted between 1800 and 1813.

In 1808, Prussia instituted a system of universal conscription and, after 1815, put it into practice fully, without exemption because of social class or payment. All young men served a specified term of duty for military training.

By the end of the 19th century, all the Great Powers, except Britain and the United States, had systems of conscription during peacetime. By then, however, conscription began to decline in usefulness. Compulsory education replaced military service; weapons became more technical, requiring professional operators; and armies could not absorb all the young men of growing populations. Abuses in granting exemptions and deferments became common.

When total populations became vulnerable to attack from the air in the 20th century, industrial resources were mobilized on a forced basis, together with human resources. The nation-in-arms concept of Napoleonic times developed into the rigorous organization of the entire state conscripted for total war, as in Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union during the 1930s.

In the United States, conscription was first based on the colonial tradition of the militia, in which all men, usually those between 16 and 60 years of age, were liable for service. During the American War of Independence, Congress urged all the states to conscript men.

IV.

Conscription in the 20th Century

In World War I the Great Powers fought with conscripted military forces. Britain depended on volunteers until 1916, then resorted to compulsion. This spurred a number of Irishmen to join the armed uprising (Easter Rising) against British rule, although many more fought voluntarily for Britain in the war. The United States enacted the Selective Service Act of 1917 upon entering the war. Canada relied on volunteers until 1918, when it used conscripts. Australia used volunteers in World War I and New Zealand conscripted between 1901 and 1930. In World War II both countries began conscription, although Australia sent only volunteers to fight in Europe and North Africa.

Between the two world wars, all the Great Powers except Britain and the United States continued universal military service. Germany, although prohibited by the Treaty of Versailles from conscripting troops, reintroduced the system in May 1935. In May 1939 the British parliament adopted a Conscription Act, establishing a system of peacetime military training. Upon the outbreak of World War II, a law adopted on September 3, 1939, provided for conscripting all males between 18 and 41. In May 1940 Parliament adopted the Emergency Powers Defence Act, which mobilized the human and industrial resources of the nation.

V.

Post-World War II

Membership of NATO and the development of an independent nuclear deterrent enabled Britain to lead the way in ending conscription after the war. In April 1957 the Minister of Labour announced his intention to discontinue national service in 1960. The last British national servicemen were called up in November 1960 and discharged in May 1963.

Conscription has been abandoned in Australia and New Zealand. In the United States, it is popularly called “the draft” and, by legislative enactment, selective service.

Peacetime conscription was inaugurated in the United States in September 1940, and new selective service legislation broadened its provisions on December 13, 1941, six days after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Conscription ceased in 1947, but selective service was extended in the 1950s because of the Korean War. The draft laws continued in existence, with frequent amendment, and provided manpower for the Vietnam War. In 1969 a lottery system for choosing draftees was introduced. In 1973 membership in the US armed forces was put on an all-volunteer basis; since 1980, men have had to register with the selective service system within 30 days of their 18th birthday. Some opposition to registration exists, although present practice does not call for a resumption of compulsory military service.

Since the end of the Cold War the Western allies in NATO have continued to move towards abolishing conscription and maintaining small, highly trained professional armed forces. In areas where there is high tension and a likelihood of conflict, such as the Middle East, and notably Israel, conscription is still used to produce sufficient troops to ensure national security.

In the former Soviet Union conscription was a vital component of the Communist system and has since grown in unpopularity in Russia, with many potential conscripts refusing service. They register at 17 and are called up at 18 to serve for 18 months in the army or 24 months in the navy or air force. Many of the former Eastern bloc states and Soviet republics are now members of NATO, and as their armed forces become completely depoliticized, it seems likely that they too will be able to move towards ending conscription.