I.

Introduction

Higher Education, period of advanced study. The term “higher education” has two distinct meanings. First, it denotes a stage of education that succeeds secondary education, or follows further or tertiary education. It is defined, therefore, in terms of academic level. Higher education consists of all courses beyond final school examinations (Advanced Levels, commonly called A Levels, in England and Wales; Higher Grades in Scotland; the baccalaureate in France; the Abitur in Germany) and intermediate technical qualifications (level 3 in terms of National Vocational Qualifications, NVQs, in Britain). Most of these courses are at undergraduate (Bachelor’s degree) and postgraduate level (Master’s and Doctoral degrees), but they also include higher technical and professional qualifications, such as the Higher National Diploma (HND) in Britain. More recently two-year Foundation Degrees, which include work experience and are offered in association with employers, have also been introduced in Britain. The demarcation between secondary and further education on the one hand and higher education on the other has become less clear as higher education institutions have begun to offer special access programmes at a lower academic level, which may be targeted at disadvantaged social groups, and more general courses for adults, and also to provide continuing education and opportunities for lifelong learning.

Second, higher education denotes the system of institutions that provide such courses and also engage in research. These are principally universities. However, many national systems also include other institutions. In England and Wales, polytechnics were established following a 1966 White Paper, although since 1992 they have been included in the university sector. In France the instituts universitaires de technologie were established at the same time. Although they are linked to the universities, they operate as independent institutions with a stronger vocational emphasis. In Germany there are Fachhochschulen and in the Netherlands HBO (higher professional) schools. A unified higher education system was created in Sweden in 1977, although important differences remain between the traditional universities and smaller university colleges. In Australia a unified system was established in 1988 by amalgamating the former colleges of advanced education into existing universities or to form new universities. In New Zealand, a state-funded university system offers academic degree courses and research opportunities, while a polytechnic and institute of technology system focuses on providing education and training in a wide range of industry- and occupation-based vocational courses.