II.

Land and Resources

Poland is a predominantly lowland country situated, for the most part, in the North European Plain. Although Poland appears as an unbroken plain on a relief map, it has considerable diversity and complexity. The average elevation is only about 175 m (575 ft) above sea level, as compared with the overall European average of some 290 m (950 ft), but elevations reach as high as 2,499 m (8,199 ft), atop Mount Rysy in the High Tatry Range in the south, and as low as 1.8 m (almost 6 ft) below sea level in the Wisła delta in the north. Poland is divided into a number of distinct parallel physiographical regions that run from east to west. A marked contrast exists between the northern two thirds of the country and the southern one third.

The northern zone is a vast region of plains and low hills, divided into the Central Polish Lowlands, the Baltic Heights, and the Coastal Plain. The Central Lowlands are traversed from east to west by a series of large, shallow valleys. To the north of the Central Lowlands is the Baltic Heights region, dotted with hills and lakes. A narrow coastal lowland, about 40 to 100 km (25 to 60 mi) wide, runs nearly the entire length of the Baltic Sea. The coastline, 694 km (431 mi) long, is remarkably smooth and regular, the major exceptions being the Pomeranian Bay in the west and the Gulf of Gdańsk (Danzig) in the east. A few good natural harbours are located along the Baltic.

The southern third of Poland consists of a number of well-marked regions, comprising upland areas of various kinds and adjacent or intervening lowlands. A narrow belt of mountains occurs in the extreme south and south-west. The Western Carpathian mountain system, which includes the High Tatry Range and the Beskids, contains the highest elevations in the country. In the south-west, the Sudety Mountains reach a maximum elevation of 1,602 m (5,256 ft) in Poland. North of the mountains are a zone of foothills, the Silesian Plain, and the Little Polish Upland.

A.

Rivers and Lakes

Almost all of Poland is drained north into the Baltic Sea by way of the Wisła and Oder river systems. The remainder is mostly drained by other rivers flowing into the Baltic. Poland has about 9,300 lakes with an area of 1 hectare (2.5 acres) or more. Lakes are concentrated in the Baltic Heights and Coastal Plain regions. Two lakes, Śniardwy (Spirding) and Mamry (Mauer), exceed 100 sq km (39 sq mi) in size. Poland has some 120 artificial reservoirs, which are situated mainly in the Baltic Heights and in the southern mountains. Many of these water resources, however, are severely polluted. The rivers Wisła, Bóbr, Nida, Wisłok, and Bug, as well as the Baltic Sea, are among the major systems suffering from years of untreated discharge of industrial and household waste. Efforts are currently being made to improve filtration and treatment of wastes, but about half of Polish factories and about 40 per cent of cities do not have treatment or filtration systems.

B.

Climate

Poland’s climate has features of both the moderate climate of Western Europe and the more severe continental climate of Eastern Europe. The climate of the western part may be classified as marine west coast, and the eastern part as humid continental with cool summers. Weather conditions are highly variable, particularly in the winter.

In January, mean temperatures range from -1° C (30.2° F) in the west to -5° C (23° F) in the southern mountains. In summer, average temperatures decrease in a north-western direction, from about 20° C (68° F) in the south-east to about 17° C (63° F) near the Baltic. During the year, the warmest temperatures may exceed 40° C (104° F), and the lowest may drop below -42° C (-43.6° F).

Average annual precipitation in Poland as a whole amounts to only some 610 mm (24 in), but it ranges from about 1,195 to 1,500 mm (47 to 59 in) in the mountains to between 450 and 600 mm (18 to 24 in) in the lowlands. Summer precipitation is about double winter precipitation.

C.

Natural Resources

Poland has diverse mineral deposits. Mineral wealth is heavily concentrated in the southern upland regions and adjacent areas. Of greatest importance are the deposits of hard coal. Reserves are estimated at 63.5 billion tonnes, 90 per cent of which are located in Upper Silesia. Poland, in addition, has more than 12.9 billion tonnes of lignite. The major deposits are in the Turoszów, Konin, and Bełchatów basins. The country also has small reserves of petroleum and natural gas.

Sulphur and copper are the most important of the country’s non-fuel mineral resources. Some of the world’s largest sulphur deposits occur near Tarnobrzeg in the south-east, and large reserves of copper are located in Lower Silesia. Important reserves of zinc and lead occur in Upper Silesia. Other minerals of economic consequence are rock salt, potash, iron ore, and gypsum.

D.

Plants and Animals

Forest covers 30 per cent of Poland. About four fifths of the woodland is made up principally of spruce or pine. A few forests in the north-east contain old and scarce species, such as dwarf birch and Lapp willow, which are unique in Europe. Much of Poland’s forest has been cut down to create farmland or has been damaged by pollution.

Poland’s animals are of limited variety. Most wildlife is typical of that found in other parts of Europe. Poland also has species that are either absent or extremely rare elsewhere in Europe. Those animals include chamois, lynx, wildcat, and elk. European bison are preserved in Białowieża National Park, which straddles the Belorussian frontier. Wolves and brown bear survive in the higher mountains, and elk and deer are fairly numerous in the lake districts. Grouse, heathcock, and black stork inhabit grain-producing areas, lake marshes, and forests. The inland lakes and streams support considerable fish populations.

E.

Environmental Concerns

In the early 1990s, as Poland emerged as a free and independent democratic state, its overall environmental situation was dismal. The country produces most of its energy by burning imported fossil fuels and has the lowest energy generation per capita in eastern Europe, with extremely high energy prices. Severe air pollution resulting from the emissions of coal-fired power stations has measurably affected human health. Up to three-quarters of Poland’s trees show damage from acid rain. Poland also struggles with water pollution problems from agricultural chemicals run-off, and the Baltic Sea is heavily polluted along the coast. Some improvements have been made, however. Pollution controls in industry and for motor vehicles are falling in line with western European standards. Many old, outdated factories that were once major sources of pollution have been closed or modernized. As a result, some areas of Poland are now cleaner.

Despite the heavily agricultural landscape of Poland, about 28.7 per cent (1995) is forested. Poland maintains 17 national parks as well as numerous nature reserves and landscape parks. Overall, 9.6 per cent (1997) of the country’s land is protected. Threatened biomes include peat bogs and a vast system of lakes that covers nearly 2 per cent of the country. Poland has ratified the World Heritage Convention and the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. The country also has seven biosphere reserves under the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Man and the Biosphere Program. Other international environmental agreements ratified include those pertaining to air pollution, the Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, climate change, endangered species, environmental modification, hazardous wastes, marine dumping, nuclear test ban, ozone layer, ship pollution, and whaling. Regionally, Poland has committed itself to the protection of marine resources through the Baltic Convention and to the preservation of European heritage through the Bern Convention.