I.

Introduction

Wales, country and principality, part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, united politically, legally, and administratively with England, and occupying a broad peninsula on the western side of the island of Great Britain. Wales also includes the island of Anglesey, which is separated from the mainland by the narrow Menai Strait. Wales is bounded on the north by the Irish Sea; on the east by the English counties of Cheshire, Shropshire, Herefordshire, and Gloucestershire; on the south by the Bristol Channel; and on the west by the St George’s Channel and Cardigan Bay. The maximum north-south length of the Welsh mainland is about 220 km (137 mi); in an east-west direction the width of the country varies between 60 and 155 km (36 and 96 mi). The total area of Wales is 20,760 sq km (8,015 sq mi). Cardiff is the capital, largest city, and principal seaport of Wales.

II.

Land and Resources

Wales has an irregular coastline with many bays, the largest of which is Cardigan Bay. Except for the narrow coastal plains, mainly in the south and west, the river valleys, and the lowlands of the Welsh Marches along the English border, Wales is almost entirely mountainous. The raised plateau of the Cambrian Mountains, which has an average elevation of 610 m (2,000 ft) and extends north-south through central Wales, occupies about two thirds of the country. Other major highland areas are the Brecon Beacons in the south-east, the rugged volcanic rocks of the Snowdon massif, in the north-west, and Cader Idris, in the west. Snowdonia contains the highest peaks in Wales; Mount Snowdon (1,085 m/3,560 ft), in Snowdonia National Park, is the highest point in England and Wales.

A.

Rivers and Lakes

The River Dee, which rises in the mountains of Snowdonia National Park, to the west of Lake Bala (the largest natural lake in Wales), and flows through northern Wales into England and then the Irish Sea, is one of the country’s principal rivers. The others are the Wye and the Severn, which both begin near Aberystwyth, flow eastward into England, and then turn south to empty into the Bristol Channel. In the south, many of the rivers flow through steep valleys, including the Usk, Teifi, and Towy. The main river of the north, apart from the Dee, is the Clwyd.

B.

Plants and Animals

The flora and fauna of Wales are generally the same as those of similar parts of England. Ferns and mosses are abundant in low-lying, wet areas; grasslands and then moorlands predominate at higher elevations. About 12 per cent of Wales is covered in woodlands, mainly in the uplands, at elevations up to 305 m (1,000 ft). Species include mountain ash, oak, and various conifers; large stands of fast-growing, commercial coniferous forests have been planted in the Welsh mountains since 1945, by both private owners and the Forestry Commission, a government department. Above 305 m (1,000 ft), there are mainly species of small shrubs, coarse grasses, and alpine flora. Among the few wild animals found in Wales, but not generally found in England, are the pine marten and the polecat.

C.

Climate

Wales lies in the path of westerly winds blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean, laden with moisture. The climate, as a result, is mild and wet. The average daily temperature in July is 15.6° C (60° F), and in January it is 5.6° C (42° F). Precipitation increases with elevation, and ranges from about 762 mm (30 in) a year along parts of the coast, to more than 2,540 mm (100 in) a year in Snowdonia. Snowfalls are often heavy in the mountains and winters can be bleak.

D.

Natural Resources

Iron ore and then coal were the most valuable natural resources of Wales for almost 200 years. Iron ore deposits in the north-east and south-east were the basis of Wales’ industrialization after the 1770s. From the early 19th century the rich deposits of the South Wales coalfield, and other coal deposits in the north-east, played a dominant role in the Welsh economy. However, falling demand for coal, combined with competition from cheaper imports and policies of the Conservative government during the 1980s, undermined the industry’s markets and forced the closure of many Welsh mines. Since the 1980s further changes in government policy accelerated the pit closures, and by the late 1990s there was only a small number of mines still in production. Some high-grade anthracite is mined, but output consists principally of bituminous coal. The last deep-mine in Wales, the privately owned Tower colliery near Hirwaun, closed in 2008.

Quarrying has also been traditionally important. Slate continues to be quarried in north-western Wales. The rocks of north and mid-Wales also contain manganese, gold, lead, uranium, copper, and zinc; fireclays are also found. The soils of the Welsh uplands are of infertile rocky or leached types. The most fertile soils are in the south-east, along the coast, and in the valleys.

III.

Population

The vast majority of people born in Wales of Welsh parents consider themselves to be of Celtic ancestry. However, the population of the main cities is as ethnically mixed as anywhere else in Britain. During its long history, Celtic-speaking peoples, Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Vikings, the English, and people from other countries of the Commonwealth of Nations and the European Union have all moved to Wales, and contributed to the ethnic make-up of its population.

In 2004 the population of Wales was about 2,952,000, giving an average population density of approximately 142 people per sq km (368 per sq mi). About three quarters of the population is concentrated in the industrialized south, where population densities are highest. Cardiff county, for example, has a density of 2,172 people per sq km (5,592 per sq mi), while Rhondda Cynon Taff county borough in the Welsh valleys has a population density of 561 people per sq km (1,841 per sq mi). Powys in the mountainous centre of Wales has a population density of 23 per sq km (60 per sq mi), which is low for Britain. Gwynedd, in the north-west, has 72 people per sq km (186 per sq mi), and Pembrokeshire, in the south-west, has about 45 people per sq km (118 per sq mi).

A.

Principal Cities

The chief urban areas of Wales are the cities of Cardiff (population, 2001 estimate, 305,200), the capital, principal seaport, and commercial centre; Swansea (2001 estimate, 223,200), a seaport and industrial centre; Newport (1996 estimate, 136,789), an industrial centre that achieved city status in 2002 as part of Queen Elizabeth II’s jubilee celebrations; Wrexham (2001, 128,416); and Rhondda Cynon Taff (2001, 231,952), the former centre of the Welsh coal-mining industry and now mainly a suburban residential area with some light industry.

B.

Religion

The Church of England was the established Protestant religion of Wales, as the Church of Wales and England, until 1920, when it was disestablished in Wales and replaced by the Church in Wales, which has around 94,000 members. Nonconformist Churches have the greatest number of adherents; their popularity is largely a legacy of the 18th century when Nonconformism became associated with Welsh nationalism and with the rapidly expanding industrial communities. The chapel no longer plays the central part in Welsh life that it once did, when 80 per cent of the population belonged to a Nonconformist Church, but many thousands of Welsh people still belong to the Methodist Church, the Baptist Union, the Presbyterian (or Calvinist Methodist) Church of Wales, and the Union of Welsh Independents.

C.

Language

Both English and Welsh are official languages. English is spoken by most of the population, but according to the 2001 census more than 30 per cent of the population has one or more skill in Welsh. This is defined as either understanding spoken Welsh, speaking Welsh, reading Welsh, or writing in Welsh. This makes a total population figure of nearly 240,000 with at least one skill in the Welsh language. There is much regional variation, however, with more than 76 per cent of the population being qualified in the Welsh language in the north-west of the country in Gwynedd and less than 13 per cent in Monmouthshire on the English borders in the south-east. This language revival is in part due to the inclusion of Welsh in the school curriculum since 1970 (see Education below), to the establishment of a Welsh language television station in 1982, and to a general resurgence of interest in Welsh culture. Official support for the language after many years of agitation by Welsh nationalists and proponents of the Welsh language has also increased. There are now many more bilingual publications, and most road signs are now in English and Welsh. In 1993 the Welsh Language Act gave parity to English and Welsh in government business and the courts. See Celtic Languages.

D.

Education

The educational system of Wales is the same as that of England except with respect to the Welsh language. (For the history of Welsh education and modern structure, see United Kingdom: Education.) In 1970 provisions were made for bilingual education, and in many rural areas instruction is given in Welsh, with English taught as a second language. Under the National Curriculum, Welsh constitutes a core subject in Welsh-speaking schools and a foundation subject elsewhere in Wales. Statutory provision has also been made for all pupils in non-Welsh-speaking schools to be taught Welsh.

The principal institution of higher education is the University of Wales (founded 1893). It has a confederal relationship with accredited institutions in Wales for which it is the degree-awarding body. These institutions are Aberystwyth University; Bangor University; The University of Wales, Lampeter; The University of Wales, Newport; Swansea University; The University of Wales Institute, Cardiff; the North East Wales Institute of Higher Education; and Swansea Metropolitan University. In 2004 the University of Wales, Cardiff and the University of Wales College of Medicine merged and became the independent Cardiff University. The University of Glamorgan can trace its origins to 1913 and is based in Pontypridd.

E.

Culture

The Welsh have retained more of the culture of their Celtic forebears than the English. A strong feeling of national solidarity exists in Wales, and a revival of Welsh nationalism has received political support; representatives of Plaid Cymru (the Welsh Nationalist Party) serve in the House of Commons in London.

The Welsh are best known outside the country for their bardic and choral traditions exemplified in the eisteddfod, and in the male-voice choirs that have their roots in the chapel tradition. The eisteddfod is a celebration of Welsh music, poetry, and culture. Eisteddfodau are held throughout the country each year, culminating in the annual Royal National Eisteddfod, attended by Welsh natives and those of Welsh descent from all over the world. The International Musical Eisteddfod is also held annually in Llangollen, in Denbighshire, north Wales.

The Welsh literary tradition is one of the oldest and richest in Europe, dating back more than 1,000 years to the bardic poets. The most notable of the early Welsh bardic poets were Taliesin and Aneirin; the latter wrote the long poem Y Gododdin in about ad 600, describing the ill-fated efforts of a group of British warriors to recapture a fortress from the Saxons. The Mabinogion, composed between the mid-11th and late 13th centuries, is a collection of 11 prose stories and is one of the most important works of early medieval European literature. The best known of the 20th-century Welsh-born poets are Dylan Thomas and R. S. Thomas, though both wrote in English. Dannie Abse, Roald Dahl, and Andrew Davies are other famous Welsh-born writers. See Welsh Writing in English; English Literature; Welsh Literature.

Principal libraries include the National Library of Wales in Aberystwyth, one of Britain’s copyright libraries, and the Library of the National Museum of Wales in Cardiff. Some major museums are the National Museum & Gallery in Cardiff; the Museum of Welsh Antiquities of the University College of North Wales in Bangor; the Museum of Welsh Life at St Fagans; the Museum of the Welsh Woollen Industry at Dre-fach Felindre; the Roman Legionary Museum at Caerleon; Welsh Slate Museum at Llanberis; the Segontium Roman Museum at Caernarfon; and the Big Pit—National Mining Museum of Wales at Blaenafon. A £100 million new arts centre in Cardiff, the Wales Millennium Centre, opened in 2004.

Wales has had few famous painters, but Richard Wilson, Augustus John, and Gwen John are renowned Welsh artists. Until recently, conditions and opportunities for musical composition, in the modern sense, were rare in Wales. The long and rich folk tradition, however, has been maintained throughout the rural districts especially, and since 1906 the Welsh Folk Song Society has done valuable work in collecting and publishing this material. Choral singing, stemming from the religious revival of the late 18th century, is an extremely popular and characteristic part of Welsh musical life. Traditional instruments, especially the harp, are still played. The Welsh National Opera company and the Welsh Theatre Company are among the nation’s notable contemporary arts companies. Famous popular singers and groups include Dame Shirley Bassey, Sir Tom Jones, the Manic Street Preachers, Stereophonics, John Cale, Charlotte Church, and Bryn Terfel.

IV.

Economy

Recent decades have seen fundamental changes in the basis of the Welsh economy. Coal mining and traditional heavy industries like shipbuilding, which were the backbone of the economy from the 19th century, have almost died out. In contrast, the service sector, notably tourism and financial services, has expanded hugely, and there has been an influx of new, generally light, industries, such as electronics, which have diversified the manufacturing base.

Government support to help in the rebuilding of the most depressed of the old industrial areas was formerly channelled through the Welsh Development Agency, whose work has now been superseded by the Department of Enterprise, Innovation, and Networks, a department of the Welsh Assembly Government. The main programme for economic and urban regeneration has focused on the former mining villages and towns of the South Wales valleys. Helped by improvements to road and rail links, such government initiatives, combined with active local efforts to bring in new jobs, have made Wales particularly successful in attracting investment from overseas, especially from Japanese and other East Asian companies. In recent years, the country has received about 20 per cent of all overseas inward investment in the United Kingdom. Together with domestic private investment, this has led to the creation of thousands of new jobs with many more in the pipeline. Unemployment remains just below the UK average (about 4.7 per cent in the mid-2000s). However, long-term male unemployment is a particular problem in the former mining valleys, where a large number of the new jobs created have gone to women.

A.

Agriculture and Forestry

Agriculture occupies about 80 per cent of the land area of Wales, and is dominated by sheep- and cattle-rearing in the uplands, and dairy-farming in the lowlands. The main crops grown are fodder crops, apart from the potato crop. Market gardening and pig- and chicken-farming are also of growing importance.

Reforestation programmes mean that about 12 per cent of Wales is now covered by woodlands. Most of the new plantings are of fast-growing commercial softwoods, and the forestry industry is an important source of employment in rural areas of central, western, and northern Wales, where the new woodlands are concentrated.

B.

Mining

The development of the South Wales coalfield at the turn of the 19th century was initially aimed at supplying fuel to the iron-manufacturing industry, which had developed in the late 18th century based on ore deposits in the north-east. However, the construction of canals linking the iron- and coal-producing areas with the south coast, and later the coming of the railways, transformed the coal industry into a major export sector. By the 1840s coal mining had overtaken the iron industry as the most important economic sector, and it remained the mainstay of the Welsh economy for the next 100 years.

Decline first set in during the Great Depression of the 1930s, but the industry received a temporary boost during World War II. After 1945 the downward trend was inexorable. Falling demand for coal, the geological problems of the Welsh coalfields, and growing competition from cheaper producers overseas led to the closure of 115 mines between 1947 and 1966. By the early 1990s, only five mines were still operating, employing about 2,600 miners.

Mining in Wales pre-dates the advent of the coal industry, however. Slate-mining was an important sector of the economy during the 18th and early 19th centuries, and slate is still mined in Gwynedd. Granite is also mined, and there are small gold mines in mid-Wales.

C.

Manufacturing

Industry in Wales began in the 18th century with the processing of Cornish tin and copper ores. The main growth, however, which began the transformation of South Wales into one of the most important industrial areas of Britain, and for a time the world, was the development of the iron ore industry from the 1770s. It initially started in the north-east. By the 1820s it had become focused round the northern rim of the South Wales coalfield, and was responsible for making 40 per cent of Great Britain’s pig iron. In the 1840s, the Dowlais Ironworks near Merthyr Tydfil, with over 5,000 employees, was the largest manufacturing concern in the world. Merthyr itself had developed over 60 years from a tiny village into the largest town in Wales, with a population of 46,000.

The industry was subsequently overtaken by coal mining in economic importance; metalworking remained a major industry through to the 1950s, but declined in importance thereafter. Nowadays, Wales accounts for about one third of steel production in Britain. There were large steelworks at Llanwern, near Newport, and at Port Talbot, but both were subject to severe job cutbacks in 2000-2001.

A variety of new industries has been established since the 1950s, and especially over the past 20 years, when the country has attracted a large number of high-tech companies. A number of these new industries have moved away from the traditional industrial areas, bringing employment to towns in the rural areas of north and mid-Wales. The country is now an important centre for electronics, information technology, automotive components, chemicals, plastics, and synthetic fibres. Milford Haven is one of Britain’s leading ports, and its most important port for handling imported oil. Oil-refining has developed into an important local industry and major employer.

D.

Tourism

The Welsh coast has been a favourite destination for British holidaymakers since the early 20th century, and its mountains have long attracted walkers and climbers. However, in the past 35 years tourism has developed into one of Wales’ most important economic sectors, employing about 80,000 people. An estimated 1 million annual tourist visits were made in the mid-2000s. The promotion of tourism in the country is coordinated by the Welsh Tourist Board. Its efforts are helped by the fact that about one quarter of the country has been designated as a National Park or Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB). As well as Snowdonia National Park, the Brecon Beacons National Park, and the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park, the country has 5 AONBs (the Lleyn Peninsula, Gower Peninsula, Clwydian Range, Anglesey, and the Wye Valley and Shropshire Hills that share countryside with England), 36 country parks, and large stretches of heritage coast. The National Botanic Garden of Wales was opened in May 2000 near Llanarthney, Carmarthenshire.

E.

Energy

Wales has plentiful water resources. Reservoirs have been created in many parts of the central and north-western mountains. Hydroelectric plants have been built adjacent to some of them, but most of the water is used to supply the cities of the English Midlands. The hydroelectric power station at Llanberis, in Gwynedd, has been built inside a mountain, and is one of the largest hydroelectric power facilities in Western Europe. There are also nuclear power stations on Anglesey and the Gwynedd coast.

V.

Government

Wales is governed as an integral part of the United Kingdom. Forty Welsh Members of Parliament (MPs) are elected to Parliament at Westminster. At the 2005 general election the Labour Party gained 29 seats, the Liberal Democratic Party 4, the Conservative Party 3, Plaid Cymru 3, and 1 Independent. An elected Welsh Assembly also sits in Cardiff (see below). For the governmental system, see United Kingdom: Government.

A.

Executive and Legislature

With the elections of May 6, 1999 (and subsequently on May 1, 2003 and May 3, 2007), Wales has its own assembly—the first separate assembly in Wales for six centuries. The Welsh Assembly has power over economic development; agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and food; industry and training; education; local government; health and personal social services; housing; environment; town and country planning; transport and roads; arts, culture, and the Welsh language; the built heritage; sport and recreation; tourism; water and flood defence. Westminster retains powers over foreign affairs; defence; taxation; macro-economic policy; fiscal and common markets policy; broadcasting policy; justice system; prisons; police; fire service; national lottery and related matters; social security; benefits; competition policy; labour market policy. The Welsh Assembly and its officials have taken over the functions previously carried out by the Secretary of State for Wales, who continues to represent Wales in the British Cabinet. Unlike the Scottish parliament the Welsh Assembly has no tax-raising or law-making powers.

The Welsh Assembly, which sits for a four-year term, consists of 60 members, elected by a mixture of the first-past-the-post electoral system and a form of proportional representation known as the additional member system. Of the 60 members of the Welsh Assembly (MWAs), 40 are elected from constituencies under the traditional first-past-the-post and 20 are selected from party lists in the country's five electoral regions. These regions are the same as the current European parliamentary areas, and four MWAs are selected for each region. The first sitting occurred in May 1999, when the first secretary and the executive were appointed. The official opening was on May 26, and was carried out by the Queen and the Prince of Wales. MWAs can also simultaneously represent constituencies at the Westminster parliament.

B.

Local Government

Local government in Wales was reorganized in 1974, when the former counties and boroughs were amalgamated into eight new counties; Clwyd, Dyfed, Gwent, Gwynedd, Mid Glamorgan, Powys, South Glamorgan, and West Glamorgan. The counties were divided into a total of 37 local government districts, which were further divided into communities. Administration at all three levels was a function of popularly elected councils.

Under the Local Government (Wales) Act 1994, another fundamental reorganization of administration in Wales was introduced on April 1, 1996. The 8 county councils and 37 district councils were replaced by 22 unitary local government authorities divided equally between counties (11) and county boroughs (11); the population of the latter type tends to be mainly urban. Only Powys of the 1974 counties has retained its name, although its boundaries have been expanded to include the southernmost part of the former county of Clwyd. The other seven have vanished, to be replaced by unitary authorities which, in the case of the new counties, often bear the name of the pre-1974 Welsh counties—for example, Carmarthenshire, Flintshire, Monmouthshire, and Pembrokeshire. Cardiff and Swansea formerly had district councils; they are now the focus of counties that bear their names. The island of Anglesey, formerly part of Gwynedd, has regained its pre-1974 status as a county in its own right. The county boroughs, which are concentrated in South Wales, the most heavily populated part of the country, generally conform to the boundaries of the old district councils.

The new Welsh unitary authorities are the following counties: Isle of Anglesey; Cardiff; Carmarthenshire; Ceredigion; Denbighshire; Flintshire; Gwynedd; Monmouthshire; Pembrokeshire; Powys; and Swansea; and county boroughs: Blaenau Gwent; Bridgend; Caerphilly; Conwy, Merthyr Tydfil; Neath Port Talbot; Newport; Rhondda Cynon Taff; Torfaen; Vale of Glamorgan; and Wrexham.

Elections were held in May 1995 to establish councils for the new bodies. The task of these new councils was to prepare for the changeover and “shadow” the work of the existing authorities, and they took over administrative responsibility on April 1, 1996. The community councils, equivalent to parish councils in England, were unaffected by the changes.

VI.

History

Before the arrival of the Celts from about 600 bc, Wales was occupied by a number of groups whose presence has been determined archaeologically. From about 4000 bc the Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic) peoples of the area began to be replaced by more advanced Neolithic groups from continental Europe. It was these people who built the stone-chambered tombs called cromlechs found mainly in Anglesey, southern Pembrokeshire and Carmarthenshire, the Gower Peninsula, and the Vale of Glamorgan. During the late Neolithic era and early Bronze Age (about 2400 bc), there was a new wave of migrants from continental Europe, who brought copper technology, improved farming, and a distinctive pottery that has given them their name, the Beaker folk. During the late Bronze Age (1400-600 bc) hill forts were built, of which as many as 600 have been found in Wales.

A.

The Celts and the Roman Conquest

The country, like the whole of Great Britain south of the Scottish Highlands, was occupied by Brythonic-speaking Celts from about 600 bc, bringing with them Iron Age technology and the Druidic religion. At the time of the first coming of the Romans to Wales in 55 bc, the country was inhabited by the Silures in the south-east, the Demetii in the south-west, the Ordovicii in the north-west, and the Deceangli in the north-east.

After a long struggle, the subjugation of these tribes was completed during the reign (ad 69-79) of the Roman emperor Vespasian. Roman control was maintained from two legionary fortresses at Chester, in England, and Caerleon, linked by 30 smaller fortresses. By ad 120 most of Wales had accepted Roman rule; the Silures received some self-government based at Caerwent; Carmarthen, the only other Roman town in Wales, was the centre of the Demetii.

B.

The Welsh Kingdoms

After the collapse of Roman rule in the 400s, Welsh history becomes unclear until the 800s. The Brythonic Celtic inhabitants of England, fleeing before the waves of Anglo-Saxon invasion and settlement from the 6th century, took refuge in the Welsh mountains. Here, they intermarried with their native kin and maintained their independence against the conquerors of England. Welsh had emerged as a distinct daughter language of Brythonic by about 600; the word Cymry (“fellow countryman”) was adopted as the name for the speakers of Cymraeg. The country’s many small kingdoms eventually merged into four major ones: Gwynedd in the north-west, the dominant kingdom; Powys in the centre; Deheubarth in the south-west; and Morgannwg in the south-east. Offa’s Dyke, built during the reign of Offa, King of Mercia, was an earthwork demarcating the boundary of Wales and protecting the border area of England from Welsh attacks.

C.

Subjugation by England

Under the leadership of the kings of Gwynedd, Wales fought off the Vikings. Hywel Dda (“the Good”), who died in 950, codified the laws of Wales and recognized Athelstan, King of England, as his overlord. In 1062-1064 Harold Godwinson (later Harold II) invaded Wales with an English army but his success against Llywelyn ab Gruffudd, King of Gwynedd and overlord of the whole country, was shortlived. William I, the Conqueror, forced recognition of his sovereignty from the Welsh princes, but a great revolt in 1094 drove the Normans from Gwynedd and Powys, and much of Deheubarth. The south coast and the border area, known as the March of Wales, or Welsh Marches, remained under Norman control.

Welsh raids on the border area led the early Norman kings of England to establish a number of feudal lordships with very extensive powers, the so-called lords of the Marches. The marcher lords were a turbulent class and a source of trouble to the kings, but they served their purpose in holding the Welsh back.

The Norman kings sought to weaken the power of the Welsh kingdoms in the 1200s. The princes of Gwynedd reacted by trying to unite Wales. Llywelyn ab Gruffudd won recognition as Prince of Wales in 1267, with authority over the other Welsh rulers. He made an alliance with Simon de Montfort against Henry III, but later acknowledged the overlordship of the king. In 1273, however, he refused to pay homage to the new English king, Edward I, who in 1277 invaded Wales and compelled Llywelyn to submit to humiliating terms, including the surrender of the eastern portion of his lands and the annual acknowledgement of fealty. Llywelyn rebelled in 1282, but was killed in battle. His brother Dafydd ab Gruffudd, who carried on the struggle, was captured in 1283 and beheaded.

In 1284 Edward I completed the conquest of Wales and, by the terms of the Statute of Rhuddlan, it became an English principality. To ensure his control Edward I built a string of powerful castles, including the castles at Harlech, Beaumaris on Anglesey, and Caernarfon. Wales was not united with England, however; the March continued as a series of lordships, while Llywelyn’s territories were divided into the counties of Anglesey, Caernarfon, Cardiganshire, Carmarthenshire, Flintshire, and Meirionydd.

D.

Last Rebellion

Edward I conferred the principality on his oldest surviving son, later Edward II; Edward, who was born in Caernarfon in 1284, was given the title of Prince of Wales in 1301, when he was invested at Lincoln. It has since been the tradition for the first-born son of each English (later British) monarch to be given the title of Prince of Wales. The Welsh national spirit survived English conquest, however. In the following 200 years literature flourished; poets wrote alliterative verse known as cyn ghahedd. Bards kept Welsh oral traditions alive, and towns and trade developed. When Henry IV seized the English throne, a revolt began in Wales, which, under the leadership of Owain Glyn Dŵr (Owen Glendower) in 1402, became formidable. Owain Glyn Dŵr set up a separate parliament for Wales, and although Henry IV’s forces led by his son (later Henry V) invaded the country and won several battles, the revolt was not finally suppressed until the death of Owain Glyn Dŵr in about 1416.

Owain Glyn Dŵr’s was the last nationalist uprising and his defeat left the Welsh considerably embittered. The Welsh supported Henry Tudor (later Henry VII) in his pursuit of the English crown, regarding him as their countryman. However, Tudor policy under Henry VII and his successors towards Wales stressed assimilation.

E.

Acts of Union

The Act of Union of 1536 incorporated the Welsh Marches with England. The former lordships were divided into the counties of Breconshire, Denbighshire, Glamorganshire, Monmouthshire, Montgomeryshire, Pembrokeshire, and Radnorshire and their inhabitants received all the rights and privileges of English subjects. A second Act of Union in 1543 completed the unification of the rest of Wales, administratively, legally, and politically, with England. Welsh representatives took their seats in Parliament. Customary Welsh laws that differed from those of England were abolished and the use of the Welsh language for official purposes prohibited. The Welsh gentry continued to exercise local authority in the name of the monarch, from whom they held their lands.

F.

Welsh Nationalism

Life for ordinary Welsh people following unification remained hard. In the mountainous heartland the backbone of the economy, until the start of industrialization in the 18th century, was the raising of cattle and sheep, and the production of flannel from wool was an important industry. The owners of large estates flourished, however, and became increasingly English in culture. In time, the Anglicization of the gentry created a breach in Welsh society, which was further deepened by religious differences. Slow to adopt Protestantism, the Welsh people were decidedly cool towards the Puritanism of Oliver Cromwell and had to be persuaded by force.

G.

Nonconformism

In the 18th century they began to lean heavily towards Calvinism, and the growth of Nonconformism (in particular of the Methodist Church) after 1730 was an assertion of Welsh nationalism. Eventually four out of five Welsh people belonged to a Nonconformist Church; the chapels were the focus of Welsh culture, education, and politics.

The Liberal Party, with its sympathy for Nonconformism, attracted most Welsh votes after the extension of the franchise to working-class men after the 1860s. Welsh Liberals then began pressing for the disestablishment of the Anglican Church in Wales. This was not achieved until 1920, however, when the Church in Wales came into existence. Wales in turn supplied the Liberal Party with one of its most forceful leaders, David Lloyd George.

H.

Welsh Language and Identity

Welsh nationalism remained a strong force. Michael D. Jones, who helped set up a self-governing Welsh colony in Patagonia, Argentina, in 1865, is considered the founder of modern Welsh nationalism. The activities of Cymru Fydd (“Young Wales”) between 1885 and 1897, and of individuals like Robert Ambrose Jones (also known as Emrys ap Iwan) won the right to have Welsh included in the school curriculum in Wales in 1889.

Plaid Cymru (the Party of Wales) was established in 1925. Its initial concern was with the resurrection of the Welsh language, the number of Welsh speakers having fallen from 55 per cent in 1891 to 37 per cent in 1931. It remained a peripheral body, however, until 1966, when its first member of parliament was elected.

A more generalized concern among the Welsh over the status of their nation led to the establishment of Cardiff as the Welsh capital in 1955, and to the appointment of the first British government minister for Welsh affairs in 1951. In 1964 the office was upgraded to that of Secretary of State, and the Welsh Office was based in Cardiff. In 1982 a Welsh-language television channel (S4C) was established, and in 1993 the Welsh Language Act established the principle that in local and central government administration, and in the courts, Welsh and English should be treated on an equal basis. Welsh education is now bilingual in most areas.

I.

Devolution

While Plaid Cymru continued to press for Welsh independence, when the issue was put to the whole nation in a referendum in 1979, Welsh voters rejected by a proportion of four to one the calls for a devolved parliament. In the general election of May 1997, Wales showed similar voting patterns to the rest of the United Kingdom; the Conservative Party lost the eight seats it was defending. Although Plaid Cymru achieved the same increase in support as the Scottish Nationalists in Scotland, as their support base was smaller, they failed to gain any seats other than the four they held before the election. In the Queen’s Speech delivered during the State Opening of Parliament, however, the new Labour government promised legislation to allow a referendum on the establishment of a Welsh assembly.

In the referendum held on September 18, 1997, Wales was able to vote on devolution. The proposal to have a Welsh assembly won just 50.3 per cent of the vote, with a turnout of only 50 per cent of the Welsh electorate. On May 6, 1999, the elections for the Welsh Assembly were held. Of the 60 seats, Labour won 28, Plaid Cymru 17, Conservatives 9, and Liberal Democrats 6. A minority Labour administration took control of the assembly. The assembly is based in Cardiff and has responsibility for handling annual grants from the Treasury in London for health, education, and transport (see Government: Executive and Legislature above).

Temporarily housed at Crickhowell House in Cardiff Bay, the assembly was opened by Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Charles. The second session began in September 1999 with pressure on assembly leader Alun Michael to secure a funding package for Wales from the Treasury. In February 2000, following delays in the delivery of the funding, Plaid Cymru tabled a motion of no confidence in the leadership, but Michael resigned before the vote was carried out. He was replaced by Rhodri Morgan, his rival in the Welsh Labour Party leadership elections of February 1999.

Elections to the Welsh Assembly were held on May 1, 2003. Labour took most seats with 30, one short of an outright majority but with sufficient support to lead the Assembly. Plaid Cymru won 12 seats, Conservatives 11, Liberal Democrats 6, and there was 1 Independent member. The election was notable for the lower voter turnout (38 per cent) and the high number of women AMs to take office (30). As leader of the largest party, Rhodri Morgan retained the post of First Minister. Four years later Labour lost ground, taking 26 seats while the Welsh nationalists Plaid Cymru won 15. The Conservatives secured 12 seats, the Liberal Democrats 6, and there was 1 independent member. While still the largest party in the Assembly, it left Labour short of the necessary majority to govern. The turnout at the election was up at 43 per cent.