II.

Land and Resources

The frontiers of Portugal are defined by mountains and rivers, and the interior is largely mountainous. In the west and south the mountains descend to a large coastal plain that is intensively cultivated. The highest range is the Serra da Estrela in central Portugal, rising to almost 2,000 m (6,562 ft).

A.

Rivers and Lakes

Portugal is traversed by three great rivers, which rise in Spain and empty into the Atlantic Ocean. The Tagus (Tejo), with Lisbon situated at its mouth, is the largest river; followed by the Douro, with Porto at its mouth; and the Guadiana, which forms part of the eastern frontier. A fourth river, the Minho (Spanish, Miño), forms part of the northern frontier.

B.

Climate

The climate varies according to altitude, and high temperatures occur only in the comparatively low regions of the south. The mean annual temperature north of the River Douro is about 10° C (50° F); between the Tagus and Douro, about 15.6° C (60° F); and in the valley of the Guadiana, about 18.3° C (65° F). Rainfall is heavy, particularly in the north, but there is virtually none in July and August throughout the country.

C.

Natural Resources

The most valuable of Portugal’s natural resources are fish and minerals. Much of this mineral wealth was not developed until after World War II. Among the mineral resources are coal, copper, gold, iron ore, kaolin, tin, and wolframite, which is a source of tungsten. Although a substantial proportion of the population supports itself by agriculture, the land is not particularly suited to this occupation. Portugal also has an abundance of water-power resources in its rivers and mountain streams.

D.

Plants and Animals

The plants and animals of Portugal are virtually identical to those of Spain. The most abundant trees are the evergreen oak, cork oak, poplar, and olive. Grapevines flourish in the arid soil: port wine from Porto and Madeira wine from Madeira are world famous. Wild animals include the wolf, lynx, wildcat, fox, wild boar, wild goat, deer, and hare. Bird life and insects abound.

E.

Environmental Concerns

Soil degradation is a major environmental problem in Portugal. The land has been overworked, leading to the erosion of portions of the topsoil and to poor soil fertility. Although agricultural land makes up 32 per cent (1997) of the country's total area, Portugal must import more than half its food.

Forests cover 31 per cent (1995) of Portugal's land and are growing at a rate of 0.86 per cent a year: from 1990 to 1995 the country gained 120,000 hectares (297,000 acres) of forest cover. However, severe forest fires in the summer of 2003 destroyed more than 50,000 hectares (123,550 acres) of land. Portugal does export wood and wood products, nevertheless, and it is the world's leading producer of cork. Portugal protects 6.5 per cent (1997) of its land in parks and other reserves. Portugal suffers from water pollution, especially in coastal areas. Discharge of pollutants into these areas has threatened the coastal ecosystem. Fish are one of the country's primary natural resources, and the vast majority of them are found in these coastal regions. Portugal's total fish catch is 229,108 metric tons (1997), and 90 per cent of this catch is from the ocean. Portugal's fish catch is on the decline, however. It is already quite low compared with other small European countries.

Air pollution resulting from heavy concentrations of traffic and industry is a problem for Portugal as well, primarily in Lisbon. Acid rain has contributed to the defoliation of many of the country's trees. As a member of the European Union (EU), Portugal is expected to experience a positive change in air quality as a consequence of the organization's protocols on sulphur emissions. Hazardous waste from Portugal's industrial sector is often disposed of improperly; sometimes it is simply dumped on the land. The Portuguese government is working on a new system to properly handle hazardous waste disposal, and the process of change has accelerated since new EU regulations came into effect in the mid-1990s. Portugal is party to international treaties on air pollution, biodiversity, climate change, desertification, endangered species, hazardous wastes, marine dumping, ship pollution, tropical timber, and wetlands.