II.

Land and Resources

India may be divided into four main regions: the Himalaya, the northern river-plains, the Deccan Plateau, and the Eastern and Western Ghats.

The Himalaya mountain system is about 160 to 320 km (100 to 200 mi) wide and extends about 2,410 km (1,498 mi) along the northern and eastern margins of the Indian subcontinent, separating it from the rest of Asia. It is the highest, youngest, and one of the most active mountain systems in the world. Notable peaks wholly or partly within India include Kanchenjunga (8,598 m/28,209 ft), the third-highest peak in the world, after Mount Everest and K2 (Mount Godwin-Austen), Nanga Parbat (8,125 m/26,657 ft), Nanda Devi (7,817 m/25,645 ft), Rakaposhi (7,788 m/25,550 ft), and Kamet (7,756 m/25,447 ft).

Lying south of and parallel to the Himalaya is the northern plains region, a vast belt of flat lands about 280 to 400 km (175 to 250 mi) in width. The region is the world’s largest alluvial plain and comprises the major part of the area watered by the Indus, the Ganges, and the Brahmaputra rivers. Because of the abundance of water and the rich alluvial soil, the northern plains are the most fertile and densely populated part of India and were the cradle of its civilization. They extend west-east from the Pakistan border to the Bangladesh border, continuing east into north-east India via the narrow corridor of land near Darjiling.

The central and western portions of the Indian plains region are watered by the River Ganges and its tributaries, which drain the southern slopes of the Himalaya; the region is known consequently as the Gangetic plain. The north-eastern states of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh are watered by the River Brahmaputra and its affluents, which rise in the northern ranges of the Himalaya. The Brahmaputra crosses into Bangladesh north of the Khasi Hills. The River Indus rises in Tibet, flows west through Jammu and Kashmir State, and crosses into Pakistan. On the south-western border with Pakistan the plains give way to the Great Indian Desert and the salt marshes known as the Rann of Kachchh.

South of the plains lies the Deccan Plateau, a vast, triangular tableland occupying most of peninsular India. Generally rocky, the Deccan is an uneven plateau divided into natural regions by low mountain ranges and deep valleys. Elevations range from about 305 to 915 m (1,000 to 3,000 ft), although outcroppings as high as 1,524 m (5,000 ft) occur. The Deccan is bordered by the mountain systems known as the Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats.

The Western Ghats, a steep escarpment overlooking the Arabian Sea, have a general elevation of about 915 m (3,000 ft). The fertile Malabar Coast lies between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea. The Eastern Ghats average about 460 m (1,500 ft) in height. Between them and the Bay of Bengal is a narrow coastal plain, the Coromandel Coast. The two ranges meet at the southernmost point of the Deccan (near Bangalore) in the Nilgiri Hills.

A.

Climate

Because of the peninsularity, unusual topography, and geographical position of India, climatic conditions are widely diversified, on both a seasonal and regional basis. The diversity ranges from tropical to temperate zonal extremes; the temperature extremes are confined largely to the slopes of the Himalaya. Except in the more mountainous regions, most of the rest of India has a uniformly tropical climate. Seasonal variations, resulting from the south-western and north-eastern monsoons, profoundly influence temperature, humidity, and precipitation throughout the subcontinent. For general purposes, the seasons of India may be classified as rainy and dry. The rainy season, which generally extends from June to November, is the season of the south-western monsoon, a moisture-laden wind blowing off the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea. Beginning early in June on the western coast of the peninsula, the monsoon gradually affects almost the entire country. During this season, rainfall can be very heavy—along the slopes of the Western Ghats it often reaches more than 3,175 mm (125 in). Cherrapunji in the Khasi Hills of north-eastern India ranks as one of the wettest places on Earth—the village received a record-breaking 22,987 mm (905 in) of rain in 1861 and its average yearly rainfall is about 10,920 mm (430 in). The nearby village of Mawsynram holds the record of the world’s highest average annual rainfall with 11,873 mm (467 in) a year. Mean annual precipitation along the southern slopes of the Himalaya is about 1,525 mm (60 in). The south-western monsoon fails at times, causing droughts and occasionally famine. However, the rains are a mixed blessing. They lead to the proliferation of malaria-carrying mosquitoes, while the contrast between day- and night-time temperatures encourages respiratory disorders. Normally, the power of the monsoon diminishes in September.

The cool season of the north-eastern monsoon, extending from early December until after the end of February, is usually accompanied by extremely dry weather—although severe storms, attended by slight precipitation on the northern plains and heavy snowfalls in the Himalaya, sometimes cross the country. The hot season, beginning about the middle of March and extending until the onset of the south-western monsoon, is most oppressive during May, when temperatures as high as 51.7° C (125° F) are not uncommon in central India. In the vicinity of Kolkata, the mean annual temperature is about 26.1° C (79° F). The mean annual temperature in the west-central coastal region of the peninsula is about 27.8° C (82° F). Around Chennai (formerly Madras) temperatures range between about 24.4° and 33.3° C (76° to 92° F), with an annual mean of about 28.9° C (84° F).

B.

Natural Resources

India contains more than two thirds of the entire area of the Indian subcontinent, including most of the highly fertile Gangetic plain. In addition to extensive cultivable regions, a comprehensive irrigation network, and valuable stands of timber, India has most of the known mineral deposits of the subcontinent. However, though it has rich resources, in many areas these have not yet been fully exploited.

C.

Plants and Animals

In the arid areas that adjoin Pakistan, the flora is sparse and largely herbaceous. Thorny species, including representatives of the genera Capparis (caper) and Zizyphus (jujube), are common. Bamboo occurs in some areas, and the palm is among the few varieties of trees. The wetter Gangetic plain supports many plant species. Vegetation is especially luxuriant in the south-eastern plains, where the mangrove and the sal, a hardwood, flourish.

Many varieties of arctic flora are found on the higher slopes of the Himalaya. The densely forested lower ranges of the Himalaya support numerous species of subtropical plants, notably the orchidaceae. Coniferous species, including cedar and pine, predominate in the north-western Himalaya. To the east, the Himalayan slopes abound with tropical and subtropical vegetation, notably the rhododendron. The oak and magnolia are among the predominant trees. The Malabar Coast of the south-western peninsula and the slopes of the Western Ghats, areas of high rainfall, are thickly wooded. Evergreens, bamboo, and valuable timber varieties, including teak, predominate in this region. Extensive tracts of impenetrable jungle occur in the swampy lowlands and along the lower slopes of the Western Ghats. The vegetation of the Deccan is less luxuriant, but thickets of bamboo, palm, and deciduous trees are found throughout the peninsula.

The forests, plains, hills, and mountains of India are inhabited by a wide variety of animal life. The cat family is well represented, with the tiger and panther, snow and mainland clouded leopard, jungle cat, and, in the Deccan, the cheetah. Lions are also found, though now limited to the Gir National Park in Gujarat. Strenuous national and international efforts to protect the tiger, which was once on the verge of extinction, have resulted in a healthy build-up of populations to several thousand, protected in reserves such as that at Ranthambore, in Rajasthan.

The Asian elephant is found along the north-eastern slopes of the Himalaya and in the remote forests of the Deccan. The rhinoceros, guar, black bear, wolf, jackal, dhole, wild buffalo, wild pig, and several species of ape, antelope, and deer are also indigenous to India. Various species of wild goat and sheep as well as the ibex and the serow (related to the chamois) are found in the Himalaya and other mountainous areas. The pygmy pig, bandicoot rat, and tree mouse are typical of the smaller mammals.

India has many different kinds of snake. Venomous species include the cobra, the daboia, and salt-water snakes. Among non-venomous species, pythons usefully consume destructive rodents. Indigenous reptiles also include the crocodile. India’s birdlife includes parrots, peacocks, kingfishers, and herons. The rivers and coastal waters of India teem with fish, including many edible varieties.

D.

Environmental Concerns

India has a strong conservation and environmental protection movement, which has campaigned and lobbied with considerable success against the destruction of habitats through the demands of continuing and rapid industrialization, and population pressures. Examples of campaigns include the “tree huggers” who have fought deforestation in the Himalaya, the prevention of the Silent Valley project in Kerala (a major hydroelectric scheme that would have destroyed the habitat of species unique to the region), and most recently, the long, drawn out, and bitter battle to stop the massive Narmada Dam Project in Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. On another front, environmentalist groups have delayed the Tehri project, involving the construction of dams in a highly seismic region of the Himalaya. Among the current environmental concerns in India are deforestation, desertification, lack of access to water, air and water pollution, and the strain placed on natural resources by a huge and growing population.