I.

Introduction

Norway, officially Kingdom of Norway (in Norwegian, Kongeriket Norge), constitutional monarchy in northern Europe, occupying the western and northern portions of the Scandinavian Peninsula. It is bordered on the north by the Barents Sea, an arm of the Arctic Ocean, on the north-east by Finland and Russia, on the east by Sweden, on the south by the Skagerrak Strait and the North Sea, and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, which in Norway is also called the Norwegian Sea. Norway’s deeply indented and glaciated coastline measures about 21,925 km (13,624 mi) including all the fiords and offshore islands. The passageway between the screen of more than 150,000 offshore islands—known locally as the skerry guard—and the mainland is naturally protected. “Norway” means “northern way”, which reflects the importance of the sheltered coastal waters in linking the many small fiord and valley communities that are otherwise separated by rugged mountains. Including inland waterways Norway has an area of 385,639 sq km (148,896 sq mi). Oslo is Norway’s capital and largest city.

Svalbard, an archipelago, and Jan Mayen, a volcanic island north-east of Iceland, are Norwegian possessions in the Arctic Ocean. Bouvet Island, another Norwegian possession, is an uninhabited island in the southern Atlantic Ocean, south-west of the Cape of Good Hope. Norway also claims Peter I Island, off Antarctica, and the portion of the Antarctic continent, lying between longitude 20° west and 45° east, known as Queen Maud Land.

II.

Land and Resources

Norway is an extremely mountainous land, nearly one third of which lies north of the Arctic Circle. Its coastline is, in proportion to its area, longer than that of any other major country in the world. These geographical facts have been especially significant in the historical and economic development of the nation.

Since ancient times the Norwegian people have recognized four main regions: Vestlandet (West Country), Østlandet (East Country), Trøndelag (Trondheim region), and Nord Norge (North Norway). More recently, a fifth region, Sørlandet (South Country), has been added.

The broad bulge that constitutes the southern part of Norway contains the highest parts of the Scandinavian mountain system. These mountains, which extend in a generally south-westerly to north-easterly direction, separate the Vestlandet from the Østlandet. The mountains are a complex system of sharp and rounded peaks, called fjell, and high plateaux, called vidder. The ranges include the Dovrefjell in the north, and the Jotunheimen (“realm of the giants”) in the central region. This latter range contains Galdhøpiggen, at 2,469 m (8,100 ft), the highest peak in Scandinavia. In the south is the Hardangervidda, a vast mountain plateau averaging about 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in elevation. The Vestlandet is characterized by the steep descent of the mountains to the sea. During the Quaternary Ice Ages, glaciers cut deeply into former river valleys, creating a spectacular fiord landscape. One of the largest, Sogne Fjord, is 200 km (120 mi) long; in places, its rock walls rise abruptly from the sea to heights of 1,000 m (3,300 ft) or more.

Three lowland areas contain most of the Vestlandet’s population and agriculture: the southern coast of Boknafjorden, the lower parts of Hardanger Fjord, and the coastal islands. These islands are formed by the strandflate, a rock shelf lying in some places just above—in others, just below—the level of the sea.

The Østlandet comprises the more gentle eastern slopes of the mountains. This is a land of valleys and rolling hills. The lower parts of the valleys, particularly around the Oslofjord, contain some of Norway’s best agricultural land. The Østlandet and Vestlandet are connected by a number of valleys, the most important being Hallingdal. The Sørlandet comprises the extreme southern tip of Norway, the focus of which is the city of Kristiansand. It is characterized by particularly pleasant summer weather.

The Trøndelag, located north of the highest mountains, resembles the Østlandet, with a landscape of valleys that cut through hills and converge on fiords. The focus of this region is the broad Trondheimsfjord, which is sheltered from the sea by peninsulas and islands. A great deal of very productive agricultural land is located around this body of water.

Nord Norge, a vast region of fiords and mountains, is the “land of the midnight sun”. Most of the population is settled on the strandflate coast and islands. The archipelago of the Lofoten and Vesterålen islands, Norway’s major coastal island grouping, is formed by the partially submerged glaciated peaks of an ancient volcanic mountain range. In the northernmost part of this region the fiords face the cold waters of the Arctic Ocean. From the fiord heads the land rises to the vast Finnmarksvidde, a bleak mountain plateau. This region contains some of the largest glaciers in Europe.

A.

Rivers and Lakes

The Glåma (Glomma) in the south-east is Norway’s longest river. With its tributaries it drains about one eighth of the country’s area. Rivers flowing in a south-westerly direction along the steep western slope are generally short and have many rapids and falls. Those flowing south-east, along the gentle eastern slope, are generally longer. Norway has many thousands of glacial lakes, the largest of which is Lake Mjøsa in the south-east.

B.

Climate

Norway is in roughly the same northerly latitude as Alaska, but has a much milder climate thanks to the moderating effects of the warm waters of the North Atlantic Drift (an extension of the Gulf Stream), which flow along the country’s Atlantic coast. A maritime climate prevails over most of the coastal islands and lowlands. Winters are mild and summers are normally cool. At Trondheim the mean January temperature is -3° C (27° F), and the mean July temperature is 14° C (57° F). Moisture is plentiful all year round. The average annual precipitation on the coast is about 870 mm (34 in). In the interior, a more continental climate prevails; winters are colder, and summers warmer. At Oslo the January mean temperature is -5° C (23° F) and the July mean is 17° C (63° F). Precipitation is generally lower here than on the coast, averaging less than 730 mm (29 in) annually. In the highlands of Nord Norge the climate is subarctic. The coastal areas of this region, however, have a moderate maritime climate and most ports, even in the far north, are ice-free in winter.

C.

Natural Resources

Norway’s principal mineral resources are petroleum and natural gas, which are extracted from the vast reserves located along the continental shelf of the North Sea. Other mineral resources include modest amounts of iron ore, copper, zinc, and coal.

D.

Plants and Animals

Forests cover slightly more than one quarter of Norway’s land area. Deciduous forests are found in the coastal districts of southern and south-western Norway. The principal species are oak, ash, hazel, elm, maple, and lime. In favoured locations birch, yew, and holly may be found. To the east and north the forests have increasing numbers of conifers. Thick boreal coniferous forests are found in coastal regions and in the valleys of eastern and central Norway. These forests are dominated by Scots pine and Norway spruce, but also contain birch, alder, aspen, and mountain ash. Wild berries, such as blueberries, cranberries, and cloudberries, grow in most woodland areas. In the far north and at high elevations are tundra regions. The tundra is a treeless heath, with vegetation consisting mainly of hardy dwarf shrubs and wildflowers.

Reindeer, polar fox, polar hare, wolf, wolverine, and lemming are common in the north and in the higher mountain areas. Elk, deer, fox, otter, and marten are found in the south and south-east. Both freshwater and saltwater fish abound. Salmon, trout, grayling, perch, and pike are common in the streams and lakes. Herring, cod, halibut, mackerel, and other species inhabit coastal waters.

E.

Environmental Concerns

Norway protects 6.8 per cent (1997) of its land in parks and other reserves. Forest covers 26 per cent (1995) of the country's land, and the percentage continues to grow. From 1990 to 1995 the country's forestland increased by more than 135,000 hectares (334,000 acres). Only 2.9 per cent (1997) of the country's total land area has been developed for agriculture.

Sulphur dioxide emissions from the United Kingdom and other highly industrialized European countries have caused acid rain to fall in Norway, damaging forests and waterways. Because the country's surface water and soils are especially susceptible to acidification, many Norwegian lakes can no longer support fish. This is of particular concern because fish are one of Norway's primary natural resources and major exports. Sulphur dioxide emissions have improved in much of Europe since the implementation of the United Nations (UN) Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) Sulphur Protocols, beginning in the 1970s. However, high levels of sulphur dioxide from abroad continue to affect adversely Norway's air. Nitrogen oxide, the majority of which originates in other countries, has also become a cause of significant air pollution. In addition, emissions from Norwegian cars contribute to high air pollution levels. Because Norway relies largely on hydroelectric power, an environmentally clean energy source, Norway itself contributes relatively little air pollution to the atmosphere.

The Norwegian government is committed to improving environmental health and conservation. It has proved its willingness to work with other countries to protect the environment, in part due to the origins of the country's air pollution problems. Norway is party to international treaties on air pollution, Antarctica, biodiversity, climate change, desertification, endangered species, hazardous wastes, marine dumping, ship pollution, wetlands, and whaling.

III.

Population

The population of Norway is ethnically homogeneous. The several thousand Saami (see Saamiland) and people of Finnish origin living in Nord Norge are the only significant minority groups, although small numbers of Danes, Americans, Swedes, Britons, and Pakistanis live in Norway.

A.

Population Characteristics

Norway has a population of 4,644,457 (2008 estimate), giving a population density of about 15 people per sq km (39 people per sq mi), the lowest in continental Europe. The population is growing very slowly, with an annual rate of increase of only 0.35 per cent in 2008. Life expectancy in Norway is among the highest in the world at 83 years for women and 77 years for men. About half of the country’s population lives in the south-east, and more than three quarters of all Norwegians live within 16 km (10 mi) of the sea. Some 80 per cent of Norway’s population is urban.

B.

Principal Cities

Oslo is the principal port and industrial centre as well as the national capital. It is also the largest city, with a population of 536,209 (2005 estimate). About 25 per cent of Norway’s population lives in the vicinity of Oslo. Bergen, the cultural centre of western Norway and the second-largest city, has a population of 241,440 (2005 estimate). Other important cities are the commercial centre of Trondheim, population 157,813 (2005 estimate), and the port of Stavanger, population 114,936 (2005 estimate).

C.

Religion

About 89 per cent of the population belongs to the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Norway, though many are non-practising members. The Church is supported by the State, and the clergy is nominated by the king. Complete religious freedom is guaranteed, however, and other Churches, mostly Pentecostal and other Protestant denominations, represent about 11 per cent of the population. Religious preferences tend to be nominal.

D.

Language

Two forms of the Norwegian language are officially recognized as equal. The older language, Bokmål (“book language”), is the mother tongue for the majority of the population and the more common written language in schools; Nynorsk (“New-Norse”) is more often a written than a spoken language. Three Saami languages (from the Finno-Ugric language family) are spoken, the most notable being Northern Saami. Several other languages are used including Kven Finnish, which was acknowledged as a second language in 1997 and is now taught in schools on a compulsory basis.

E.

Education

Compulsory education was established in Norway by the Primary School Act of 1827. Changes made since the 1960s have reduced regional disparities and increased access for all social groups to the educational system.

Education is free and compulsory in all municipalities for children between the ages of 6 and 16. Norway has almost no illiteracy. For their primary education, children attend a six-year lower school and a three-year upper school. Three years of secondary school is then available. Norway has about 3,300 primary schools with a combined annual enrolment of 479,249 students and some 540 secondary and vocational schools with a combined enrolment of about 177,868 students.

Norway has more than 30 university-level institutions, which have a combined yearly enrolment of more than 79,500 students. The principal university is the University of Oslo (1811); others include the University of Bergen (1946), the University of Tromsø (1968), and the Norwegian University of Science and Technology at Trondheim (1968). Teacher-training schools and other higher educational institutions have a combined annual enrolment of about 90,000.

F.

Culture

The Norwegian people take a strong interest in their cultural heritage. For its relatively small population, the country has produced a disproportionately large number of internationally renowned artists.

Norway has preserved a rich folk culture that retains elements from the Viking age (see Viking Art). Norwegians today have a great interest in preserving indigenous folk art and music. The collection of folk music is supported by the government. Modern Norwegian culture has evolved from the great flowering of the arts that occurred in the 19th century under the influence of national Romanticism. The dramatist Henrik Ibsen is probably the most internationally renowned, but early expressions of a truly Norwegian style were produced in the other arts by the painter Johan Christian Dahl and the composer Edvard Grieg. Other important artists include the composer Christian Sinding, the painter Edvard Munch, and the sculptor Gustav Vigeland, whose sculpture park in Oslo has attracted international attention. See also Norwegian Literature.

Oslo is the undisputed cultural centre of Norway. Bergen, Trondheim, and Stavanger are important regional centres. The country’s largest art museum is the National Gallery in Oslo. Natural history museums are located in Oslo, Stavanger, Bergen, Trondheim, and Tromsø. Many other museums display artefacts of regional and national culture; the most notable of these is the Norwegian Folk Museum in Oslo. The municipal library system in Norway, begun in the early 20th century, is organized after the United States model. In addition, the state maintains specialized libraries. The largest of these is the Oslo University Library (1811), with more than 3.9 million volumes; it also serves as the national library. Also important is the National Archives in Oslo.

Performing-arts organizations include the National Theatre and the national ballet and opera, all in Oslo; and the National Stage in Bergen. The Oslo Philharmonic is the principal orchestra; other permanent orchestras are based in Bergen and Trondheim. Since 1953 Bergen has held an annual international music festival.

IV.

Economy

Norway’s gross national product (GNP) was US$237,845 million, in 2006 yielding an income per head of US$68,440. Although the Norwegian economy is based on free enterprise, the government exercises a considerable amount of supervision and control. The country’s large merchant fleet remains of great importance to the economy. The 20th century was a period of great industrial expansion for Norway, based primarily on extensive and inexpensive energy from hydroelectric power resources, but also aided by the exploitation of offshore oil resources. The country has one of the highest standards of living in the world; the estimated gross domestic product (GDP) per capita in 2006 was about US$71,874.50. The national budget in 2006 showed US$168,850 million in revenue and US$107,523 million in expenditure.

A.

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing

Agriculture accounts for an estimated 4.4 per cent of the annual Norwegian GDP. The number of agricultural holdings dropped by more than half to 85,000—comprising mainly smaller holdings of 200 hectares (500 acres) or less—between 1950 and 1966. Because of the mountainous terrain and poor soils, less than 3 per cent of the total land area is cultivated. Grains are grown in the Østlandet and the Trøndelag. The Vestlandet and Nord Norge specialize in livestock-raising and dairy-farming. The leading crops (2006 production in tonnes) are barley (552,400), potatoes (376,043), and cereals (1,228,900). Norway has approximately 2,356,152 sheep, 920,416 cattle, and 827,489 pigs. The country is self-sufficient in many agricultural products, but some grains, fruits, and vegetables must be imported.

The Norwegian forestry industry accounts for a relatively small proportion of Norway’s yearly GDP and of the country’s annual exports. Forestry is concentrated in the Østlandet and Sørlandet, where 60 per cent of the productive forestland is located. Most forestland is owned by private individuals; state ownership is important only in Nord Norge.

The fishing industry provided 7.2 per cent of total export revenue in 1995. Since the early 1970s, fish-farming (particularly salmon and sea trout) has been intensively developed by the government. Norway ranks as one of the world’s leading fishing nations, and the large motorized fishing fleet has expanded its catch area to the banks off the coast of the island of Newfoundland. The total yearly marine catch in 1995 was about 3 million tonnes. Important species caught include cod, blue whiting, Norway pout, mackerel, herring, prawns, and other fish. Whaling is also carried out; in 1993 Norway lifted a 1988 ban on fishing minke whales, arguing that the species was not threatened; 217 whales were caught in 1995. In 2000 the ban on exporting whale meat and blubber was also lifted.

B.

Mining

Before offshore drilling for petroleum began in the 1970s, mining was relatively unimportant in Norway. The country is now western Europe’s largest producer and the sector accounts for up to 13 per cent of GDP; the percentage in any given year depends on world petroleum prices. Petroleum production began on a trial basis in 1971. In 1974 a pipeline was completed to carry crude oil to Teesside, England. In 2004, annual crude petroleum production was 2,846,077 barrels a day; natural gas production was 73.4 billion cu m (2,592 billion cu ft). Natural gas is piped to both Scotland and Germany. Other mineral products include iron ore (408,000 tonnes, 2004 estimate), zinc (12,000 tonnes, 1999 estimate), copper (2,700 tonnes, 1998 estimate), and nickel (181 tonnes, 2004 estimate). The largest iron ore mines are located at Sydvaranger near the border with Russia. All the coal is mined in the Svalbard Archipelago.

C.

Manufacturing

The manufacturing sector accounts for about 9 per cent of the yearly GDP of Norway. The electrochemical and electrometallurgical industries form the most important manufacturing sector. These industries need an abundance of inexpensive electrical power, which Norway can supply. Although all raw materials for the country’s aluminium industry must be imported, Norway produces about 4 per cent of the world’s supply of refined aluminium. It is also an important producer of ferroalloys.

Norway has traditionally been a major shipbuilding nation, but its share of the world’s new tonnage is now less than 1 per cent. Shipbuilding declined dramatically after the late 1970s as the industry encountered financial problems; many shipyards have since shifted much of their capacity to the production of equipment for the offshore oilfields and gas fields. Other major manufactures include machinery, pulp and paper products, textiles, confectionery, and other food products. The country has several petroleum refineries and a major integrated iron and steel plant at Mo, which is situated near the Arctic Circle.

D.

Energy

In the early 1990s Norway obtained 72 per cent of its total energy requirements from electricity, 21 per cent from petroleum, and 7 per cent from solid fuel and natural gas. Annual electricity production is more than 106 billion kWh, nearly all of which is generated by hydroelectric power stations, making Norway one of the world’s leading hydroelectricity producers. Estimated hydroelectric power potential is 170 billion kWh. Several agreements have been made on gas exports, and Norway provides a substantial proportion of Western Europe’s gas supply.

E.

Currency and Banking

The basic monetary unit of Norway is the krone (NK) of 100 øre (NK5.44 equalled US$1; early 2008). The central bank is the Bank of Norway (1816; Norges Bank), which is the sole bank of issue. Norway also has about 133 savings banks and 20 commercial banks.

F.

Commerce and Trade

The composition and direction of Norwegian export trade changed dramatically in the 1970s with the development of North Sea oil and natural gas reserves. Norway is now Europe’s largest exporter of these two products, which together normally account for between one third and one half of the country’s total annual exports. Other major exports include machinery, aluminium, iron and steel, chemicals, pulp and paper products, and food products consisting mostly of fish. Imports include machinery and transport equipment, petroleum products, chemicals, office machines, and ores. In 2004 annual exports were valued at about US$80,489 million and imports at US$47,425 million. Norway’s three most important trading partners are the United Kingdom (which takes about 20 per cent of all exports), Sweden, and Germany. Other important trade partners include the United States, Denmark, and the Netherlands.

G.

Labour

Norway has a total labour force of about 3 million with unemployment at 4.4 per cent.The work force is distributed among the various economic sectors as follows: agriculture, forestry, and fishing, 3 per cent; manufacturing and industry, 21 per cent; services and trade, 76 per cent. About two thirds of the labour force is unionized. The Norwegian Federation of Trade Unions comprises 34 national unions with a total of over 1.3 million members.

H.

Transport

Construction of roads and railways is difficult and expensive because of Norway’s rugged terrain, and in much of the country water transport is still important. Norway is served by a road network of about 91,916 km (57,114 mi), 78 per cent of which is paved. The road network is most developed in the Østlandet. In November 2000 a road tunnel linking Laerdal and Aurland, forming part of the main route from Bergen to Oslo, was opened. At 24.5 km (15¼ mi) long it is the world's longest. More than 2.2 million motor vehicles are registered. Railways are state operated and have a total length of 4,023 km (2,500 mi), more than half of which is electrified. Coastal transport, of both passengers and freight, is especially important in the Vesterland, the Trøndelag, and Nord Norge. The coastal towns of Bergen (in the south-west) and Kirkenes (near the Russian border) are linked by a daily boat service—the Hurtigruten. Oslo is the country’s principal port. The Norwegian merchant fleet, with 1,490 vessels in 2007, totalling 3 million gross tonnes (grt), is one of the largest in the world and an important source of foreign exchange earnings. Domestic air services are also well developed. The country has more than 50 airports, with the main international airports at Oslo (Gardermoen), Bergen (Flesland), and Stavangar (Sola).

I.

Communications

Radio and television broadcasting in Norway are under government administration, but management is generally free of government intervention. The country has about 4 million radios, and some 3 million television sets, and there are about 461 telephones in use per thousand people. The newspaper industry, which is heavily subsidized by the government, includes 74 daily newspapers, with a combined circulation of about 3 million; Verdens Geng is the most influential.

V.

Government

Norway is a constitutional and parliamentary monarchy that is hereditary. The constitution was enacted on May 17, 1814. Although this document has been amended many times, the principal features remain unchanged.

A.

Executive and Legislature

Executive power is vested in the king. The king’s powers, however, are nominal, and administrative duties are carried out by the Cabinet of ministers, which is headed by the prime minister. The king makes all governmental appointments on the recommendation of the party in power.

Legislative authority is vested in the parliament, called the Storting. It consists of 169 members popularly elected every four years by all citizens over the age of 18. The parliament may not be dissolved by the executive. The Storting elects one quarter of its members to an upper house, the Lagting; the remainder constitute the lower house, the Odelsting.

B.

Political Parties

The moderate, left-of-centre Labour Party is traditionally the strongest of Norway’s political parties and has governed almost continuously since 1935, except for short periods when a Conservative-led coalition held power (1981-1986; 1989-1990). The other major parties are the progressive, right-of-centre Conservative Party; the left-of-centre Centre Party, which favours the decentralization of decision-making; the centre-left Christian People’s Party; the right-wing Progress Party; and the Socialist Left Party. The Christian People’s Party headed the government from 1997 to 2000, and again from 2001 to 2005. Minority parties include the Liberal Party, the Coastal Party, the Pensioners’ Party; the Sami People Party, and the Norwegian Green Party.

C.

Judiciary

Norway’s highest court is the supreme court, or Høyesterett, consisting of a president and 17 judges. Below this are five (regional) Courts of Appeal, which hear both civil and criminal cases. In addition, conciliation courts handle civil suits, and district and town courts hear criminal cases. Except in the case of conciliation courts, whose board members are locally elected, all judges are appointed by the monarch, following recommendation by the Ministry of Justice and consultation with an advisory body.

D.

Local Government

Norway is divided into 19 counties (fylker): Akershus, Aust-Agder, Buskerud, Finnmark, Hedmark, Hordaland, Møre og Romsdal, Nordland, Nord-Trøndelag, Oppland, Oslo, Østfold, Rogaland, Sogn og Fjordane, Sør-Trøndelag, Telemark, Troms, Vest-Agder, Vestfold. The counties are divided into rural and urban municipalities, each of which has a governing council, elected every four years.

E.

Health and Welfare

Health insurance is mandatory, with the state, the employer, and the individual all contributing to the health fund. All medical care is free. In 2006 Norway had 1 doctor for every 265 inhabitants. A compulsory National Pension Scheme that was put into effect in 1967 provides old-age, disability, rehabilitation, widow, widower, one-year paid maternity leave, universal child support, and other benefits.

F.

Defence

The king is commander-in-chief of the armed forces, which total some 25,800 personnel. Conscription for 12 to 15 months is compulsory for all male citizens when they reach the age of 19. A home guard, with a strength of about 79,000, serves local areas. The defence of Norway is bound up with NATO, which the country joined in 1949.

G.

International Organizations

Norway is a member of the United Nations (UN); NATO; the Arctic Council; the Council of the Baltic Sea States; the Council of Europe; the European Economic Area; the European Free Trade Association; the World Trade Organization (WTO); the Nordic Council; the Organization for Economic Cooperation and the Development (OECD); and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE).

VI.

History

According to archaeological research, Norway was inhabited as early as 14,000 years ago by a hunting people with a Palaeolithic culture derived from western and central Europe. Later, farming communities from Denmark and Sweden were established in the region. These settlers spoke a Germanic language that became the mother tongue of the later Scandinavian languages. These new arrivals made their homes on the shores of the large lakes and fiords. Mountains formed natural boundaries around most of the settled areas. In time, social life in the separate settlements came to be dominated by an aristocracy and, eventually, by petty kings. By the time of the first historical records of Scandinavia, about the 8th century ad, some 29 small kingdoms existed in Norway.

A.

Viking Period

Inevitably, the kings turned their attention to the sea, the easiest way of communication with the outside world. About ad 800, ships of war were built and sent on raiding expeditions, initiating the era of the Vikings. The northern sea rovers were traders, colonizers, and explorers as well as plunderers. Around ad 875 they established settlements in Ireland, Britain, and Iceland and in the Orkney, Faroe, and Shetland islands. A century later, in about ad 985, Eric the Red led Vikings to Greenland from Iceland; a few years later, his son, Leif Ericson, was one of the first Europeans to explore North America. Bands of the northern Vikings penetrated Russia, where their influence on the Russian state is still the subject of debate and research. Others settled in France, where they became the ancestors of the Normans of Normandy.

In the 9th century the first successful attempt to form a united Norwegian kingdom was made by King Harold I, called the Fairhaired, of Vestfold (south-eastern Norway). Succeeding to the throne of Vestfold as a child, Harold managed to establish his supremacy over all of Norway shortly before 900, but on his death in about 940, his sons divided Norway, with Eric Bloodaxe as Overking. Dissensions and wars among Harold’s heirs disrupted the temporary unity, and many of the petty rulers refused to surrender their independence. In addition to these domestic struggles, Danish and Swedish kings were attempting to acquire Norwegian territory.

B.

Christianity Introduced

In 995 Olaf I, a great-grandson of Harold I, became king. Before his accession Olaf had lived in England, where he had been converted to Christianity. He took the throne with the firm purpose of imposing Christianity on Norway and was partially successful. Five years after his accession he quarrelled with King Sweyn I of Denmark and was killed in battle. Norway was divided for a short time, but was reunited by Olaf II, who made himself king in 1015. He continued the religious work of his predecessor, using the sword against all who refused to be baptized. By about 1025 Olaf was more powerful than any previous Norwegian king had been. He aroused the enmity of powerful nobles, who, together with Canute II (the Great), King of England and Denmark, drove Olaf into exile in Russia in 1028. Two years later Olaf returned and was killed in battle. Subsequently, he was canonized as Norway’s patron saint.

C.

Native Kings

On the death of Canute in 1035, Olaf’s son, Magnus I, was called from Russia by partisans of his father. He became king and then united Denmark and Norway under his rule. For the next three centuries a succession of native kings ruled Norway. Although internal confusion and wars between rival claimants to the throne disrupted the country intermittently, Norway began to emerge as a united nation, enjoying the comparative prosperity brought by its great trading fleets. The Norwegians had become devoutly Christian, and a powerful clergy was one of the strongest influences in the kingdom. In 1046 Magnus made his uncle Harold Hårdråde co-ruler. At the death of Magnus one year later, Harold became king as Harold III; he was killed while participating in the invasion of England in 1066. The last king of the line of Harold III was Sigurd I, whose rule lasted from 1103 until his death in 1130.

Dynastic conflict followed the death of Sigurd. Of the many later kings, the most notable was Sverre, king from 1184 to 1202. A statesman of great ability, Sverre built a strong monarchy and considerably weakened the power of the clergy and the great nobles. During the reign of Håkon IV, from 1217 to 1263, Norway reached the apex of its medieval prosperity, and political and cultural power. Iceland was added to the kingdom in 1262, and royal authority was greatly increased by Håkon and his son, Magnus VI. The landed aristocracy was virtually crushed by Håkon V, who reigned from 1270 to 1319. After that the old noble families gradually declined, and for the most part Norway became a nation of peasants. Commercial activity was usurped by the increasingly powerful Hanseatic League.

The death of Håkon V in 1319, without male heirs, gave the throne to King Magnus II of Sweden, the three-year-old son of Håkon’s daughter. In 1343 Magnus was succeeded by his son, Håkon VI, and in 1380 the latter’s son, Olaf III, King of Denmark, became King of Norway as Olaf IV. The young king exercised only nominal rule, real power being in the hands of his mother, Margaret I. When he died, he was succeeded by his mother as ruler of Norway and Denmark and, in 1389, of Sweden also. To obtain German support against the dukes of Mecklenburg, who claimed the Swedish throne, Margaret had her grand-nephew, Eric of Pomerania, elected king.

D.

Union with Denmark and Sweden

By the Union of Kalmar in 1397, the three Scandinavian kingdoms were made a single administrative unit. Norway became a province of Denmark and Lutheranism became its official religion. Norwegian prosperity and culture declined steadily after the union. The country’s decline was compounded by the Black Death, the plague that had swept through Norway and the rest of Europe in the 14th century, killing up to one third of the population. Sweden and Denmark were larger and wealthier than Norway, which the Scandinavian kings, for the most part, neglected. During the subsequent four centuries Norway remained stagnant under the arbitrary rule of Danish officials.

The Napoleonic Wars finally led to the end of the Union of Kalmar. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1814, Denmark, an ally of France, was compelled to sign the Treaty of Kiel, ceding Norway to the king of Sweden. The Norwegians, however, disavowed the treaty. They declared themselves an independent kingdom, drew up a liberal constitution, and offered the crown to Danish Crown Prince Christian Frederick (later Christian VIII). The Norwegian move was disapproved by the European powers, and, at the head of an army, Marshal Jean Bernadotte, later King Charles XIV John, persuaded Norway to accept the Treaty of Kiel. In return for this acceptance, Norway was allowed to retain the newly promulgated constitution. By the Act of Union of 1815, Norway was given its own army, navy, customs, and legislature, and was permitted full liberty and autonomy within its own boundaries.

E.

Second Union with Sweden

After 1814 the Norwegian Storting, or legislature, was chiefly occupied with stabilizing and improving the country’s financial condition and in implementing and guarding its newly won self-government. Despite the bitter opposition of Charles XIV John, an autocratic monarch, the Norwegian legislature passed a law in 1821 abolishing the Danish-created peerage. The Storting held that the true Norwegian nobles were the peasant descendants of the medieval barons. Norwegian nationalism increased, and the Storting complained that Swedish treatment of Norway was not consistent with the spirit of the Act of Union and with the status of Norway as an equal state. At length, in 1839, Charles XIV John appointed a joint committee of Swedes and Norwegians to revise the wording of the Act of Union. Charles died in 1844, before the committee submitted its report. His son, Oscar I, admitted the justice of many Norwegian claims and made himself popular by granting Norway a national flag for its navy, although the flag bore the symbol of union with Sweden.

F.

Ascendant Nationalism

The liberal movement in Norwegian politics, accompanying the surge of nationalism, became more pronounced after the revolutions of 1848 in the major countries of Europe. Political nationalism was bolstered by intellectual and cultural nationalism. Norwegian folktales and folk songs were collected and arranged and became extremely popular. Norwegian dictionaries, histories, and grammars were compiled. The literary renaissance included such writers as Henrik Ibsen, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Jonas Lie, and Alexander Kielland.

When, in 1860, Sweden began to propose revisions to the Act of Union giving it additional powers, the two greatest Norwegian political parties, the Lawyers Party and the Peasant Party, combined to form the liberal Venstre (“Left”) Party and blocked the changes. Another significant controversy between the two countries was occasioned by renewed Swedish attempts at constitutional revision, including establishment of the royal right to dissolve the Storting. Led by Johan Sverdrup, President of the Storting, the Norwegian legislature engaged in a long struggle with King Oscar II. Oscar was forced to yield in 1884. Norwegian policy then centred on demands for a separate consular service and a Norwegian flag for the merchant marine without the symbol of union. The flag was approved in 1898, but Sweden balked at the demand for a consular service. In 1905, after protracted negotiations, the Norwegian government resigned and subsequently refused Oscar’s request that they withdraw their resignations. As a result the Storting declared that Oscar was no longer ruler of Norway and proclaimed the country an independent kingdom. In a plebiscite in August 1905 the Norwegian people voted overwhelmingly for separation from Sweden. The Swedish Riksdag (parliament) ratified the separation in October. A month later Prince Carl of Denmark accepted the Norwegian crown as Håkon VII.

G.

Independence

The Norwegian government, dominated by ministers with liberal policies, became one of the most advanced in Europe in matters such as unemployment insurance benefits, old-age pensions, and laws concerning divorce and illegitimacy. In 1913 Norwegian women achieved the right to vote in all national elections, and Norway has promoted equality in the workplace with progressive social policies. Women play a prominent role in the country’s politics.

After the outbreak of World War I in 1914 the sovereigns of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark agreed to maintain the neutrality of the Scandinavian countries and to cooperate for their mutual interest. This policy of neutrality and friendship continued to be the joint policy of all three nations after the war ended. The world economic depression that began in 1929 affected Norway considerably because of its dependence on trade. The Labour Party was elected to power in 1935 and continued the policies of moderation and political liberalism that had dominated Norwegian politics since 1905.

Norway maintained its traditional neutrality when World War II began in 1939. Despite sympathy for Finland during the Russo-Finnish phase of the conflict, Norway rejected an Anglo-French demand for transit of troops to aid Finland. German maritime warfare along the Norwegian coast, however, made neutrality increasingly difficult. On April 8, 1940, the United Kingdom and France announced that they had mined Norwegian territorial waters to prevent their use by German supply ships. The next day German forces invaded Norway.

Assisted by the Nasjonal Samling (National Union) Party and disloyal Norwegian army officers, the Germans attacked all important ports. Vidkun Quisling, head of the Nasjonal Samling, proclaimed himself head of the Norwegian government. King Håkon and his Cabinet, after an unsuccessful attempt at resistance, withdrew to Britain in June. For five years thereafter, London was the seat of the Norwegian government-in-exile. Political leaders in Norway refused to cooperate in any way with Josef Terboven, the German commissioner. In September Terboven dissolved all political parties except the Nasjonal Samling, set up a so-called National Council composed of party members and other German sympathizers, and announced the abolition of the monarchy and the Storting. These and other still more repressive measures were met with mass resistance by the Norwegian people. Quisling proclaimed martial law in September 1941 because of large-scale sabotage and espionage on behalf of the Allies.

The leaders of the Norwegian resistance movement cooperated closely with the government-in-exile in London, preparing for eventual liberation. The German forces in Norway finally surrendered on May 8, 1945, and King Håkon returned to Norway in June. To punish traitors, the death penalty, abolished in 1876, was restored. Quisling, along with some 25 other Norwegians, was tried and executed for treason.

H.

Labour Governments

The government-in-exile resigned after temporary order was established. In the general elections of October 1945, the Labour Party won a majority of votes, and a Labour Cabinet was headed by Einar Gerhardsen. The party remained in unbroken power for the next 20 years. Under its stewardship Norway developed into a social democracy and welfare state, became a charter member of the UN in 1945, participated in the European Recovery Programme in 1947, and joined NATO in 1949. NATO membership, by which the country abandoned its traditional neutrality, was tacitly approved by the Norwegian people in the elections of October 1949.

The Norwegian economy came out of the war badly damaged, both by German exploitation and by domestic sabotage; retreating German troops burned many northern towns. Reconstruction, however, began at once, directed by the Labour government, which soon took over the planning of the entire economy, reinforcing the country’s position in international markets and redistributing the national wealth along more egalitarian lines. Within three years, Norwegian gross national product had reached its pre-war level. This development was accompanied by new social legislation that greatly increased the welfare of the citizens. In 1959 Norway became one of the founding members of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA).

I.

Political Shifts

The parliamentary elections held in September 1961 resulted in the failure of the Labour Party for the first time since 1935 to win a majority of seats, although it kept its place as the leading party. Gerhardsen, who had been prime minister since the end of the war, except for an interval from 1951 to 1955, was designated once again to head the Cabinet. In 1965 the Labour Party was defeated in general elections, ending a 30-year rule. King Olaf V, who had succeeded Håkon VII on the latter’s death in 1957, then asked Per Borten, leader of the Centre Party, to form a government. He headed a coalition of non-socialist parties. Economic policies, however, did not markedly change. Norway instituted a comprehensive social security programme in 1967.

In 1970 Norway applied for membership to the European Community, or EC (now called the European Union, or EU), a move that gave rise to increasing dissension within the government. Early in the following year Borten resigned after charges were made that he had divulged confidential information. Trygve Bratteli of the Labour Party then formed a minority government that campaigned strongly for EC membership. In a referendum in 1972, however, the voters vetoed the government’s recommendation. As a result, the government resigned and was succeeded by a centrist coalition headed by Lars Korvald of the Christian People’s Party. In May 1973 Norway signed a free-trade agreement with the EC. Labour suffered considerable losses in the 1973 elections, but Bratteli again was able to form a minority government.

Bratteli resigned in January 1976, but the party remained in power until the elections of September 1981, headed from February to October by Gro Harlem Brundtland, Norway’s first woman prime minister. The non-socialist parties gained a comfortable majority in September, and Kåre Willoch of the Conservative Party formed a coalition government in October. A broader coalition government, again headed by Willoch, was formed in 1983 and was re-elected in 1985.

The country’s economic prospects brightened considerably in the late 1960s, when oil and gas deposits were discovered in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea; exploitation by a state company began in the 1970s. Oil from the North Sea fields accounted for some 30 per cent of Norway’s annual export earnings in the early 1980s. Oil prices dropped abruptly in 1985 and 1986, and the prospect of lower tax revenues and reduced export earnings led the Willoch government to call for higher petrol taxes in April 1986. He lost a vote of confidence on the issue and was succeeded by a minority Labour government led by Brundtland in May. She resigned after inconclusive elections in September 1989, carrying Labour into opposition.

Jan P. Syse of the Conservative Party succeeded Brundtland as prime minister, heading a minority centre-right coalition. The Syse government’s tenure, however, was very short: unable to agree on a common position concerning future relations with the EC, it fell in October 1990. Syse’s government was replaced the following month by a coalition headed by Labour’s Brundtland. King Olaf V died in January 1991 and was succeeded by his son, Harald V. In 1993 Norwegian officials, led by Foreign Minister Johan Holst, played an integral part in peace negotiations between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization.

On May 4, 1994 the European Parliament endorsed membership of the EU for Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Austria. Talks with Norway had previously stalled because of a dispute over fishing rights in Norway’s North Sea waters. However, in a referendum on November 27-28, 1994, Norwegians rejected EU membership for a second time, despite strong campaigning by Brundtland, who made it a personal issue. The 52.4 per cent “no” vote was a result of strongly anti-EU feeling in rural areas and among women; the former feared the erosion of large-scale government subsidies for fishing and farming; the latter the undermining of Norway’s egalitarian social policies. There was also a more widespread general concern about possible negative effects of EU membership on Norway’s stringent environmental laws.

Relations between Norway and Iran deteriorated in January 1995 as a result of the fatwa passed on the author Salman Rushdie by Iranian religious authorities, and the subsequent shooting of Rushdie’s Norwegian agent. Thorbjørn Jagland succeeded Gro Harlem Brundtland as prime minister in October 1996. No overall victor emerged from the parliamentary election in September 1997, although the minority Labour government won 65 seats. Prime Minister Thorbjørn Jagland felt bound to honour his campaign pledge to resign if voters failed to give him the same level of support his party had been given in the October 1996 election. The runners-up in the poll, the Progress Party, led by the right-wing Carl Hagen, and the Christian People’s Party, both improved their share of the vote, gaining 25 seats each, giving an overall result that was seen by many observers to be the harbinger of weak coalition administrations. The Labour government resigned in early October and Kjell Bondevik, the Christian People’s Party leader was invited to form a government.

Bondevik remained as prime minister until March 2000 when his minority government resigned after a vote of no confidence. The vote was called in a dispute over whether to introduce some gas-fired power plants, ecologically more damaging than the current hydro-electric plants but, the opposition argued, better than continuing importing electricity from coal-fired plants abroad. Jens Stoltenberg of the Labour Party was invited to form a new government.

Tens of thousands of Norwegians joined a march through the streets of Oslo in February 2001 in protest at the killing of a black teenager, in what was described as the country’s first ever racist killing. There was widespread outrage at the murder and the prime minister described it as a “watershed in Norwegian history”.

In August 2001 Crown Prince Haakon married a commoner, Mette-Marit Tjessem Hoiby, in Oslo.

The results of the general election held on September 10, 2001, proved inconclusive but saw a drop in support for the ruling Labour Party. The major issues of the election campaign included the high rate of taxation and continued concerns over energy production. In protracted negotiations to form a government, a three-party coalition was put together consisting of Conservative, Christian People’s Party, and Liberal MPs with promised support from the Progress Party. The previous prime minister, Kjell Bondevik, was reappointed on October 19.

Stoltenberg became prime minister once more after the 2005 general election, after the Labour Party won a majority of seats. However, Labour needed to enter a coalition with the Socialist Left Party and the Centre Party in order to form an effective government. Besides Labour the other major winner at the polls was the right-wing Progress Party (notable for advocating a stronger policy on immigration), which gained 22 per cent of the vote.