I.

Introduction

Argentina or Argentine Republic, officially Argentine Republic, federal republic in southern South America, bordered on the north by Bolivia and Paraguay; on the east by Brazil, Uruguay, and the Atlantic Ocean; on the south by the Atlantic Ocean and Chile; and on the west by Chile. The country occupies most of the southern portion of the continent of South America and is somewhat triangular in shape, with the base in the north and the apex at Punta Dungeness, the south-eastern extremity of the continental mainland. The length of Argentina from north to south is about 3,330 km (2,070 mi); its maximum width is about 1,384 km (860 mi). The country includes the Tierra del Fuego territory, which comprises the eastern half of the Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego and a number of adjacent islands to the east, including Isla de los Estados. The area of Argentina is 2,780,400 sq km (1,073,518 sq mi); it is the second-largest South American country, after Brazil. Argentina, however, claims a total of 2,808,602 sq km (1,084,120 sq mi), including the Falkland Islands, and other sparsely settled southern Atlantic islands as well as part of Antarctica. The Argentine coastline measures 2,665 km (1,656 mi) in length. The capital and largest city is Buenos Aires.

II.

Land and Resources

Argentina comprises a diverse territory of mountains, upland areas, and plains. The western boundaries of the country fall entirely within the Andes, the great mountain system of the South American continent. For considerable stretches the continental divide demarcates the Argentine-Chilean frontier. The Patagonian Andes, which form a natural boundary between Argentina and Chile, are one of the lesser ranges, seldom exceeding about 3,660 m (12,000 ft) in elevation. From the northern extremity of this range to the Bolivian frontier, the western part of Argentina is occupied by the main Andean cordillera, with a number of peaks above about 6,400 m (21,000 ft). Aconcagua (6,959 m/22,831 ft), the highest of these peaks, is the greatest in the world outside Central Asia. Other noteworthy peaks are Ojos del Salado (6,893 m/22,615 ft) and Tupungato (6,800 m/22,310 ft), on the border between Argentina and Chile, and Mercedario (6,770 m/22,211 ft). Several parallel ranges and spurs of the Andes project deeply into north-western Argentina. The only other highland of consequence in Argentina is the Sierra de Córdoba in the central portion of the country. Its highest peak is Champaquí (2,850 m/9,350 ft).

Eastwards, from the base of the Andean system, the terrain of Argentina consists almost entirely of a flat or gently undulating plain. This plain slopes gradually from an elevation of about 610 m (2,000 ft) to sea level. In the north, the Argentine plains consist of the southern portion of the South American region known as the Chaco. The Pampas, treeless plains that include the most productive agricultural sections of the country, extend nearly 1,600 km (1,000 mi) south from the Chaco. In Patagonia, south of the Pampas, the terrain consists largely of arid, desolate steppes.

A.

Rivers and Lakes

The chief rivers of Argentina are the Paraná, which traverses the north-central portion of the country; the Uruguay, which forms part of the boundary with Uruguay; the Paraguay, which is the main affluent of the Paraná; and the River Plate, the great estuary formed by the confluence of the Paraná and the Uruguay rivers. The Paraná-Uruguay system is navigable for nearly 3,200 km (2,000 mi). A famed scenic attraction, the Iguaçu Falls, is on the river of the same name, a tributary of the Paraná. Other important rivers of Argentina are the Colorado, the Salado, and the Negro. In the area between the Salado and the Colorado and in the Chaco region, some large rivers empty into swamps and marshes or disappear underground. There are also many lakes, particularly among the foothills of the Patagonian Andes. The best known are those in the alpine lake country around the resort town of Bariloche.

B.

Climate

Temperate climatic conditions prevail throughout most of Argentina, except for a small tropical area in the north-east and the subtropical Chaco in the north. In the vicinity of Buenos Aires the average annual temperature is a mild 16.1° C (61° F). The January and July averages for this area are, respectively, 23° C (74° F) and 10° C (50° F). In San Miguel de Tucumán the average January temperature is 26° C (79° F) and the average July temperature is 13° C (56° F). Considerably higher temperatures prevail near the tropic of Capricorn in the north, where extremes as high as 45° C (113° F) are occasionally recorded. Climatic conditions are generally cold in the higher Andes, Patagonia, and Tierra del Fuego. In the western section of Patagonia winter temperatures average about 0° C (32° F). In most coastal areas, however, the ocean exerts a moderating influence on temperatures.

Precipitation in Argentina is marked by wide regional variations. More than 152 cm (60 in) falls annually in the extreme north, but conditions gradually become semi-arid to the south and west. In the vicinity of Buenos Aires annual rainfall is about 950 mm (37 in). In the vicinity of San Miguel de Tucumán annual rainfall is about 970 mm (38 in).

C.

Natural Resources

The traditional wealth of Argentina lies in the vast Pampas, which are used for extensive grazing and grain production; but Argentine mineral resources, especially offshore deposits of oil and natural gas, have assumed increasing importance in recent decades.

D.

Plants and Animals

The indigenous vegetation of Argentina varies greatly with the different climate and topographical regions of the country. The warm and moist north-eastern area supports tropical plants, including such trees as the palm, rosewood, lignum vitae, jacaranda, and red quebracho (a source of tannin). Grasses are the principal variety of indigenous vegetation in the Pampas. Trees, excluding such imported drought-resistant varieties as the eucalyptus, sycamore, and acacia, are practically non-existent in this region and in most of Patagonia. The chief types of vegetation in Patagonia are herbs, shrubs, grasses, and brambles. The Andean foothills of Patagonia and parts of Tierra del Fuego, however, possess flourishing growths of conifers, notably fir, cypress, pine, and cedar. Cacti and other thorny plants predominate in the arid Andean regions of north-western Argentina.

In the north the fauna is most diverse and abundant. The mammals in these regions include the monkey (several species), jaguar, puma, ocelot, anteater, tapir, peccary, and raccoon. Indigenous birds include the flamingo and various hummingbirds and parrots. Many birds in the north are captured for illegal export. In the Pampas there are the armadillo, fox, marten, wildcat, hare, deer, American ostrich or rhea, hawk, falcon, heron, plover, and partridge; some of these animals are also found in Patagonia. The cold Andean regions are the habitat of the llama, guanaco, vicuña, alpaca, and condor. Fish abound in coastal waters, lakes, and streams.

E.

Soils

The soils of Argentina vary greatly in fertility and suitability for agriculture, and water is scarce in many areas outside the north-east and the humid Pampas. The Pampas, which are largely made up of a fine sand, clay, and silt almost wholly free from pebbles and rocks, are ideal for the cultivation of cereal. In contrast, the gravelly soil of most of Patagonia, in southern Argentina, is useless for growing crops. The natural grasslands of this region are used primarily as pasture for sheep. Most of the northern Andean foothill region is unsuitable for farming, but several oases favour fruit culture. In part of the Chaco an unusually saline soil is believed to be responsible for the abundance of the tannin-rich quebracho trees.

F.

Environmental Concerns

About two-fifths of Argentina’s population lives in metropolitan Buenos Aires alone, where heavy traffic leads to significant air pollution. In rural areas, access to safe water and sanitation is limited. Argentina generates most of its electricity in plants that use hydroelectric power or fossil fuels. However, it has three nuclear power facilities and a relatively advanced and self-contained nuclear programme. The government has agreed to abide by the safeguards of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

Argentina has a relatively complex policy on land protection. There are 190 protected sites, covering a total of 4.4 per cent of the country, with a mixture of federal, provincial, and municipal administration. Universities and private individuals also administer a few reserves. Only 1.7 per cent (1997) of the land receives significant protection, and only about half of the recognized ecotypes in Argentina are represented in the protected land system. Major ecological threats are hunting and logging in the north, excessive tourism in the south, and overgrazing in virtually all areas. Rivers are becoming polluted due to an increase in pesticide and fertilizer use.

Argentina signed the World Heritage Convention and the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, and has designated five biosphere reserves under the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Man and the Biosphere Program. The United States Debt-for-Nature program has been recently used by the Nature Conservancy (US) to preserve habitat in the Patagonian Andes.

III.

Population

About 85 per cent of the population is of European origin. Unlike most Latin American countries, Argentina has relatively few mestizos (people of mixed European and Native American ancestry), although their number has increased in recent times. Today, Native Americans, including the Guaraní and mestizos, make up about 2 per cent of the population. European immigration continues to be officially encouraged; from 1850 to 1940, some 6,608,700 Europeans settled in the country. Spanish and Italian immigrants have predominated, with significant numbers of French, British, German, Russian, Polish, Syrian, and other South American immigrants. More than one-third of the population lives in or around Buenos Aires; about 87 per cent of the people live in urban areas.

A.

Population Characteristics

Argentina has a population of 40,677,348 (2008 estimate). The overall population density was about 14.9 people per sq km (39 per sq mi).

B.

Principal Cities

Important cities include the capital, Buenos Aires, population 3,018,102 (2005 estimate); Córdoba, population 1,368,109 (2001), a major manufacturing and university city; the river port of Rosario, 908,163 (2001); La Plata, 520,647 (2001), capital of Buenos Aires Province; Mar del Plata, 519,707 (2001), a resort city at the mouth of the River Plate; San Miguel de Tucumán, 527,150 (2001), a diversified manufacturing centre; Salta, 462,051 (2001), famous for its colonial architecture; and Mendoza, 110,993 (2001), hub of an important agricultural and wine-growing region.

C.

Language

Spanish is the official language and is spoken by the overwhelming majority of Argentines (33 million mother-tongue speakers). At least 24 Native American languages are spoken, including: South Bolivian Quechua (850,000), Santiago del Estero Quichua (60,000), Mapudungun (40,000 or more), and Toba (15,000 to 20,000). Some immigrant languages are also spoken in Argentina, notably Italian (1.5 million), North Levantine Spoken Arabic (1 million), Standard German (400,000), Japanese (32,000), and Welsh (25,000).

D.

Religion

Roman Catholics make up about 91 per cent of the population. Judaism, Protestantism, and a number of other religions, both Christian and non-Christian, are practised, but several faiths and sects are banned as “injurious to public order”. By law, the president and vice-president of Argentina must be Roman Catholic.

E.

Education

Primary education is compulsory from ages 5 to 14 and free from primary to university level. In 2000 about 4.9 million pupils attended primary schools; 3.8 million attended secondary and vocational schools. In 1994-1995 there were 740,500 university students. Argentina’s literacy rate of about 97 per cent is one of the highest in Latin America. In 2002–2003 the government spent 4.3 per cent of gross national product (GNP) on education.

Argentina has 40 national universities and many state and private universities. The principal institution is the University of Buenos Aires (1821). Other major national universities are the Catholic University of Argentina (1958), National Technological University (1959), National University of Córdoba (1613), and other universities located in Bahía Blanca (1956), La Plata (1897), Mendoza (1939), San Miguel de Tucumán (1914), and Rosario (1968).

F.

Culture

Argentina is a nation with a rich Spanish heritage, strongly influenced since the 19th century by European, notably Italian, immigration. A lively interest is maintained in the nation’s history, particularly as symbolized by the gaucho (cowboy). In the fine arts, the most important model has been France; only in folk art has there been significant influence from Native American cultures.

F.1.

Literature

Argentine literature, originally a derivative form of Spanish literature, took on a markedly nationalistic flavour in the 19th century. The poem Fausto (1866), by Estanisláo del Campo, is a gaucho version of the Faust legend; Martín Fierro (1872), a narrative poem on gaucho life by José Hernández, is considered by many the national epic of Argentina; and finally, the sociological essay Facundo (1845; trans. 1868), by Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, is a study of how the rural life of the Argentine Pampas helped shape the national character.

Twentieth-century Argentine literature has produced the celebrated Shadows in the Pampas (1926; trans. 1935), a novel by Ricardo Guiraldes; Hopscotch (1963; trans. 1966), a novel by Julio Cortázar; The Kiss of the Spider Woman (1976; trans. 1979), a novel by Manuel Puig; and the stories of Ernesto Sábato. Eduardo Mallea, a novelist who wrote on Existentialist themes, and Jorge Luis Borges, internationally renowned for his fantasies, are major contemporary figures. The best-known poet is Leopoldo Lugones, who wrote both Symbolist and Naturalist verse.

F.2.

Art

Painting in the 19th century was dominated by gaucho themes and scenes of town life. Prilidiano Pueyrredón was the principal artist of the period. Painters of the 20th century include the Realist Cesareo Bernaldo de Quirós; Benito Quintela Martín, painter of port life in Buenos Aires; the Cubist Emilio Pettoruti; and Raul Soldi. The works of the sculptor Rogelio Yrurtia are widely known.

F.3.

Music

The most important components of traditional Argentine music are the gaucho folk song and folk dance; Native American music from the northern provinces; European influences; and, to a minor extent, African music. The tango, which developed in Buenos Aires and became a favourite ballroom dance throughout much of the world, is perhaps Argentina’s most famous contribution to modern music. Astor Piazzolla, a prolific 20th-century tango composer, bandleader, and performer, incorporated jazz and classical influences in his works.

Symphonic music and opera are important features of cultural activity. The National Symphony Orchestra is based in Buenos Aires, and the opera company of the city is housed in the Colón Theatre, built in 1908. The Colón opera has achieved an international reputation for excellence. Leading figures in the classical music field are three brothers, José María Castro, Juan José Castro, and Washington Castro, all conductors and composers. Alberto Williams, the founder of the Buenos Aires Conservatory, was the best known of all Argentine composers. Alberto Ginastera is well known for his symphonic, ballet, operatic, and piano music, which is popular throughout the world.

F.4.

Libraries and Museums

The leading library of Argentina is the National Library (1810) in Buenos Aires. Prominent among the many museums in Buenos Aires are the Argentine Museum of Natural Sciences, the National Museum of Fine Arts, and such private collections as the International Art Gallery. The Museum of La Plata is famous for its collections of reptile fossils.

IV.

Economy

Argentine manufacturing and mining industries make the greatest contributions to the economy. The country’s main manufacturing enterprises are chemicals, food, paper, and pulp. Agricultural products and the raising of livestock, however, are still important parts of the economy, and Argentina is one of the world’s leading cattle- and grain-producing regions. The country also has substantial deposits of petroleum and natural gas. Tourism plays a significant part in the Argentine economy. Neighbouring South Americans are attracted to Buenos Aires city life, the skiing resorts in the Córdoba highlands, and the coastal resort of Mar del Plata. In 2006 there were an estimated 4.1 million visitors to Argentina.

Economic growth, lower inflation, and increased foreign investment followed the economic reforms that began in 1991. The reforms included the privatization of a number of state-owned industries, the lowering of trade barriers, and widespread deregulation. However, the Mexican currency crisis of 1995 precipitated an austerity programme, and unemployment remained very high. In 2001, when Argentina defaulted on its debt payments, the debt owed was estimated at more than US$130 billion and the unemployment rate was running at more than 20 per cent. The GNP was estimated to be US$137,326 million in 2004, giving a per capita income of US$5,150.

A.

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing

In normal years, Argentina raises enough agricultural products not only to fill domestic needs but also to export surpluses to foreign markets. Of Argentina’s land area of about 280 million hectares (692 million acres), about 52 per cent is used for pasturing cattle and sheep herds, around 22 per cent is forest and wasteland, and about 4 per cent is used for permanent crops; about 9 per cent of the country’s land area is arable. The Pampas is the most important agricultural zone of the country, producing wheat and cereal grains. Irrigated areas, from the Negro north through Mendoza, San Juan, Tucumán, and Jujuy, are rich sources of fruit, sugar cane, and wine grapes.

Livestock-raising and slaughtering are major enterprises in Argentina, as are the refrigeration and processing of meat and animal products; total annual meat production exceeds 2.7 million tonnes. In 2006 there were about 50.8 million head of cattle, 12.4 million sheep, and 1.5 million pigs in Argentina. In addition, there were about 3.7 million horses; Argentine horses have won an international reputation as racehorses and polo ponies.

Despite declines during the 1980s, livestock export still plays an important role in foreign trade. Earnings from meat, hides, and skins in 1993 were about US$792 million, or about 5 per cent of total export earnings. Argentina has long ranked as one of the world leaders in the export of raw meat. Cooked and canned meats are increasingly important exports.

Large quantities of wool are produced and exported; in 2006 about 60,000 tonnes of wool were produced. About 40 per cent of all sheep in Argentina are raised in the Patagonia region.

The major crops in Argentina are wheat, soya beans, sugar cane, and maize. Argentina is among the major producers of wheat in the world. In 2006 the annual sugar cane crop was about 18.8 million tonnes, soya beans 40 million tonnes, maize 14.4 million tonnes, and wheat 14 million tonnes.

Other major field crops include sorghum, flaxseed, sunflower seeds, cotton, potatoes, rice, maté, peanuts, and tobacco, as well as a considerable crop of grapes, oranges, lemons, and grapefruit.

Situated mainly in mountain areas distant from centres of population, the 45,000,000 hectares (111,195,000 acres) of woodland are relatively unused. Among the most exploited woods are elm and willow, for cellulose production; white quebracho, for fuel; red quebracho, for tannin (used for tanning leather); and cedar, for the manufacture of furniture. Other economically important woods are oak, araucaria, pine, and cypress.

Argentina’s fisheries, potentially highly productive, have not been fully exploited, although production increased steadily in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. In 2005 the catch was about 933,902 tonnes—mostly hake, anchovy, mackerel, and dorado.

B.

Mining

Although the country has a variety of mineral deposits, including oil, coal, and a number of metals, mining has not been fully exploited. In recent decades, however, production of oil and coal, in particular, has increased significantly. In terms of value, the chief mineral product is oil. In the early 1990s annual production of crude oil was 28.6 million tonnes, furnishing virtually all of the country’s needs; offshore reserves are expected to boost production levels. In 1993 the oil industry was privatized. The country also produces significant amounts of natural gas. Relatively small quantities of gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, iron, tin, tungsten, mica, uranium, and limestone are mined.

C.

Manufacturing

Most industry is centred in Buenos Aires. About 20 per cent of the national workforce is employed by manufacturing establishments. The country’s oldest and largest industry is the processing and packaging of foodstuffs. The textile industry ranks second. Other major industries produce rubber goods (both natural and synthetic), cement, chemicals, paper, plastic, and petroleum products. Steel production is rapidly expanding; in the mid-1990s yearly steel production was about 3.3 million tonnes, and the motor industry produced 227,000 motor vehicles in 1995.

D.

Energy

Most rivers and falls with potential energy are located far from industrial centres, but despite these technical limitations water resources are being developed in Argentina at a rapid rate. Major hydroelectric projects undertaken in the 1970s and 1980s were located in northern Patagonia, the Yocreta Dam and other sites on the Paraná River, and on the Uruguay River (in cooperation with Uruguay). Overall, about 83.3 billion kWh of electricity were produced yearly in Argentina in 2003, of which about 40 per cent came from hydroelectric installations. Nuclear power accounted for 8 per cent, and conventional thermal plants for 48 per cent.

E.

Currency and Banking

Formerly, Argentina’s monetary system was based on the peso oro (Spanish, “gold peso”), although no gold coins actually circulated. The peso moneda nacional (called the paper peso and consisting of 100 centavos) was the currency in use. Rampant inflation in the 1970s and early 1980s rapidly depreciated the value of the peso, and in June 1985 a new currency, the austral (equal to 1,000 pesos), was introduced as part of an ambitious programme to control inflation. When this failed, the nuevo peso argentino (now Argentine peso, equal to 10,000 australs) was introduced in January 1992, at an exchange rate of 0.99 pesos equal to US$1. The pegging of the peso to the US dollar kept inflation steady but did not allow for the peso to be devalued. However, after the introduction of emergency economic measures in January 2002 the peso was devalued by 30 per cent. The peso was freely floated in February 2002. At early 2008, 3.15 pesos equalled US$1.

The Central Bank (Banco Central de la República Argentina), which was established in 1935 and came under government control in 1949, functions as the national bank and has the sole right to issue currency. In the mid-1990s, 30 other banks were government-owned, 96 were in private hands, and 30 more were foreign-owned.

F.

Commerce and Trade

The trade balance tends to be favourable to Argentina when world demand for food is high. In the early 1990s Argentina’s balance of trade continued to be strongly favourable, and in 2003 imports were about US$13,833 million and exports were about US$29,566 million. The United States and Brazil were the leading suppliers of imports and major outlets for Argentine exports. Other major trading partners included the Netherlands, Germany, Italy, Chile, France, and Japan. Regional trade with other Latin American countries is governed by the Latin American Integration Association (LAIA), of which Argentina is a member. Principal imports are machinery and electrical equipment; iron, iron products, and other metals; chemicals; basic manufactures; and transport equipment. The major exports are cereals, oilseeds, meat, iron, steel, wool, hides, dairy products, transport equipment, forest products (notably tannin and tung oil), and petroleum and petroleum products.

G.

Transport

The Argentine railway system was owned and operated by the government from 1948 until 1993-1994, when much of the rail system was privatized. However, much of the track has since become the responsibility of provincial governments. The system has a total length of about 35,753 km (22,216 mi). Three different gauges are used. Two lines crossing the Andes provide a connection with points in Chile; railway links also connect Argentina with Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Brazil. As a result of privatization, service to some areas of the country is unavailable.

The national airline, Aerolíneas Argentinas, was privatized in 1990. Buenos Aires Aeroparque and Buenos Aires Ezeiza are the major interational airports. There are also several smaller, internal airlines. About 11,000 km (6,800 mi) of waterways are provided by canals and navigable rivers, especially those in the River Plate region. The combined length of all roads in 2004 was about 400,000 km (248,548 mi). A railway tunnel through the Andes has provided facilities for motor vehicles since its expansion in 1940. In the mid-1990s some 4.6 million passenger cars and 1.2 million commercial vehicles were registered. Argentina has six people for every vehicle, one of the highest ratios in South America.

H.

Communications

A postal service extending to the entire country is maintained by the government. More than 4.8 million telephones are in use. In 1997 about 24 million radios were in use in Argentina, and televisions numbered about 11 million.

More than 200 daily newspapers are published in Argentina, although the principal ones are published in Buenos Aires and circulate throughout the country. La Prensa and La Nación, with circulations of about 100,000 and 211,000, respectively, are famed internationally for their independent views and objectivity. Other leading Buenos Aires papers are Clarín (daily circulation 600,000) and La Razón (180,000). The provincial capitals and other secondary centres all have daily papers with strong local followings. A number of magazines containing both news and features are published in Buenos Aires and circulate throughout the country.

I.

Labour

In 2006 the total workforce was estimated at about 18.8 million. Most of Argentina’s 1,100 trade unions are affiliated with the Confederación General del Trabajo (General Labour Confederation), known as the CGT. The right to unionize, suspended in 1976, was restored in 1982, and by the early 1990s the labour movement embraced some 3 million workers. By 1995 President Menem’s privatization programmes had resulted in the loss of several hundred thousand jobs and an unemployment rate of 18.6 per cent.

V.

Government

According to the constitution of 1853, Argentina is a federal republic headed by a president, who is assisted by a council of ministers. Legislative powers are vested in a national congress consisting of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. A new constitution was passed in 1949, only to be rescinded in 1956. All constitutional provisions were suspended in 1966 following a military takeover. After another military coup in 1976, the constitution of 1853 was again suspended, but it was reinstated when Argentina returned to civilian rule in 1983.

A.

Executive and Legislature

The constitution of 1853, in the preamble and in much of the text, reflects the ideals and aims of the constitution of the United States. The president and vice-president each serve for a four-year term. From 1976 to 1983, when constitutional government resumed, the Junta Militar, comprising the military chiefs of staff, was the supreme organ of state, with the power of appointing and dismissing the president.

The constitution of 1853 permits the suspension of parliamentary government and civil liberties should the president deem that a national emergency requires a “state of siege”. This provision has been invoked frequently in Argentine history.

The Argentine National Congress (Congreso Nacional) consists of a lower chamber, the 257-member Chamber of Deputies of the Nation (Cámara de Diputados de la Nación), and an upper chamber, the 72-member Senate (Senado). Deputies are directly elected to four-year terms; senators to terms of six years. The president is elected directly by the electorate for a renewable four-year term. All citizens 18 years of age or older are expected to vote. Proportional representation in national elections was initiated in 1962.

B.

Political Parties

There is a significant number of political parties in Argentina but two main parties dominate the political process. They are the Justicialist Party (PJ; Partido Justicialista; commonly known as the Peronists) and the Radical Civic Union (UCR; Unión Cívica Radical). Many other alliances and coalitions form. Particularly successful in recent years have been the Front For a Country in Solidarity (FrePaSo; Frente por un País Solidario), the Front for Victory Alliance (FPV; Frente para la Victoria; the party of the president Cristina Fernández de Kirchner), and the Alternative for a Republic of Equals (ARI; Alternativa por una República de Iguales).

C.

Local Government

Under the constitution, the provinces of Argentina elect their own governors and legislatures. During periods when the constitution has been suspended, provincial governors have been appointed by the central government.

Argentina comprises 23 provinces, the self-governing Federal District, which consists of the city of Buenos Aires and several suburbs, the Argentine-claimed sector of Antarctica, and several South Atlantic islands. Tierra del Fuego, which was formerly designated a national territory, became a province in 1993.

The provinces are grouped into five major areas: the Atlantic Coastal, or Littoral, provinces, comprising Buenos Aires (excluding the city of Buenos Aires), Chaco, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Formosa, Misiones, and Santa Fe; the Northern provinces, comprising Jujuy, Salta, Santiago del Estero, and Tucumán; the Central provinces, comprising Córdoba, La Pampa, and San Luis; the provinces of the Andes, or Andina, comprising Catamarca, La Rioja, Mendoza, Neuquén, and San Juan; and the Patagonian provinces, comprising Chubut, Río Negro, and Santa Cruz.

A number of nations do not recognize the Argentine claim to the vast sector of Antarctica, between longitude 25° West and 74° West, and to a number of South Atlantic islands.

D.

Judiciary

Federal courts include the supreme court, 17 appellate courts, and district and territorial courts on the local levels. The provincial court systems are similarly organized, comprising supreme, appellate, and lower courts.

E.

Health and Welfare

The National Institute of Social Welfare has administered most Argentine welfare programmes since its founding in 1944. Health services are provided to workers by the various unions and to others by free hospital clinics. Medical standards are relatively high in the cities, and efforts are constantly being made to improve medical facilities located in outlying rural areas. In 1990 the government spent 4.2 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP) on health. There is one doctor for every 332 people in Argentina. Life expectancy at birth is 72.8 years for men and 80.4 years for women (2008).

F.

Defence

The Argentine military establishment is one of the most modern and best equipped in Latin America and has historically played a prominent part in national affairs. Conscription was abolished in 1995. The army has a strength of about 41,400 (2004). The navy consists of an aircraft carrier (in reserve), six missile-equipped destroyers, and a number of lighter ships and submarines; it has a strength of about 17,500 (2004). The air force, with 12,500 personnel (2004), has about 200 combat aircraft, including jet fighters and bombers.

G.

International Organizations

Argentina is a member of the United Nations (UN), the Organization of American States (OAS), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Inter-American Development Bank (IADB), the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), and Mercosur.

VI.

History

The north-western region of Argentina formed part of the Inca Empire, and the Pampas was dominated by nomadic Native Americans. In February 1516, the Spanish navigator Juan Díaz de Solís, then engaged in a search for a south-west passage to the East Indies, piloted his vessel into the great estuary now known as the River Plate (or Río de la Plata) and claimed the surrounding region in the name of Spain. Sebastian Cabot, an Italian navigator in the service of Spain, visited the estuary in 1526. In search of food and supplies, Cabot and his men sailed up the river later called the Paraná to a point near the site of modern Rosario. They constructed a fort and then pushed up the river as far as the region now occupied by Paraguay. Cabot, who remained in the river basin for nearly four years, obtained from the natives quantities of silver (Spanish la plata), a name that was soon applied to the river system and most of the region watered by it.

A.

Early Settlements

Colonization of the region was begun in 1535 by the Spanish soldier Pedro de Mendoza. In February 1536, Mendoza, who had been appointed military governor of the entire continent south of the River Plate, founded Buenos Aires. In its efforts to establish a permanent colony, the Mendoza expedition encountered severe hardships, chiefly because of difficulties in obtaining food. Hostile natives forced the abandonment of this settlement five years later.

In 1538 Domingo Martínez de Irala, one of Mendoza’s lieutenants, founded Asunción (now the capital of Paraguay), which was the first permanent settlement in the La Plata region. From their base at Asunción, the Spanish gradually won control over the territory between the Paraná and Paraguay rivers. The small herds of livestock brought from Spain had meanwhile multiplied and spread over the Pampas, creating the conditions for a stable agricultural economy.

Santiago del Estero, the first permanent settlement on what is now Argentine soil, was established in 1553 by Spanish settlers from Peru. Santa Fe was founded in 1573, and in 1580 the resettlement of Buenos Aires was begun. In 1620 the entire La Plata region was attached to the viceroyalty of Peru for administrative purposes. Because of the restrictive commercial policies of the Spanish government, colonization of the La Plata region proceeded slowly during the next 100 years. Buenos Aires, the centre of a flourishing trade in smuggled goods, grew steadily. By the middle of the 18th century, its population numbered close to 20,000. In 1776 the territory occupied by present-day Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay was separated from Peru and incorporated as the viceroyalty of La Plata.

B.

Patriotic Awakening

In June 1806, Buenos Aires was attacked by a British fleet under the command of Admiral Home Riggs Popham. The viceroy offered no defence against the attack, which was made without authorization by the British government. The invaders occupied the city but were expelled by a citizen army the following August. An expeditionary force subsequently dispatched by the British government against Buenos Aires was compelled to capitulate in 1807. These events had far-reaching consequences: the colonial patriots, imbued with confidence in their fighting ability, soon became active in the independence movement that had begun to develop in Spanish South America.

Revolutionary sentiment in La Plata reached its peak in the period following the deposition of King Ferdinand VII of Spain by Napoleon in 1808. The people of Buenos Aires refused to recognize Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon’s brother, who was then installed on the Spanish throne. On May 25, 1810, they overthrew the viceregal government and installed a provisional governing council in the name of Ferdinand VII. The provisional government shortly broke with the representatives of Ferdinand and launched an energetic campaign to revolutionize the La Plata hinterland. This campaign ended in failure. Several signal victories, however, were won over invading royalist armies in 1812 and 1813. The liberated part of the viceroyalty was divided into 14 provinces in 1813. In 1814 the brilliant military leader José de San Martín took command of the northern army, which later struck decisive blows against Spanish rule in Chile and Peru.

C.

The United Provinces

During 1814 and 1815 sentiment crystallized in the liberated area, which was nominally still subject to the Spanish Crown, in favour of absolute independence. Representatives of the various provinces convened at Tucumán in March 1816. On the following July 9 the delegates proclaimed independence from Spanish rule and declared the formation of the United Provinces of South America (later United Provinces of the Río de la Plata). Although a so-called supreme director was appointed to head the new state, the congress was unable to reach agreement on a form of government. Many of the delegates, particularly those from the city and province of Buenos Aires, favoured the creation of a constitutional monarchy. This position, which was later modified in favour of a highly centralized republican system, met vigorous opposition from the delegates of the other provinces, who favoured a federal system of government. Friction between the two factions mounted steadily, culminating in a civil war in 1819. Peace was restored in 1820, but the central issue, formation of a stable government, remained unresolved. Throughout most of the following decade a state of anarchy, further compounded by war with Brazil from 1825 to 1827, prevailed in the United Provinces. Brazil was defeated in the conflict, a result of rival claims to Uruguay, which emerged as an independent state.

The national political turmoil lessened appreciably after the 1829 election of General Juan Manuel de Rosas as Governor of Buenos Aires Province. A federalist, Rosas cemented friendly relations with other provinces, thereby winning broad popular support. He rapidly extended his authority over the United Provinces, which became known as the Argentine Confederation, and during his rule all opposition groups were crushed or driven underground.

D.

Republican Government

The dictatorial regime of Rosas was overthrown in 1852 by a revolutionary group led by General Justo Urquiza, a former governor of Entre Ríos Province, who received assistance from Uruguay and Brazil. In 1853 a federal constitution was adopted, and Urquiza became first president of the Argentine Republic. Buenos Aires Province refused to adhere to the new constitution, and proclaimed independence in 1854. The mutual hostility of the two states flared into war in 1859. The Argentine Republic won a quick victory in this conflict and, in October 1859, Buenos Aires agreed to join the federation. The province was, however, the centre of another rebellion against the central government in 1861. Headed by General Bartolomé Mitre, the rebels defeated the national army in September of that year. The president of the republic resigned on November 5. In May of the next year a national convention elected Mitre to the presidency and designated the city of Buenos Aires as the national capital. With these events, Buenos Aires Province, the wealthiest and most populous in the union, achieved temporary control over the remainder of the nation.

Turmoil in Uruguay brought on a Paraguayan invasion of Argentine territory in 1865, beginning the bloody War of the Triple Alliance, which ended in complete victory for Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay in 1870. During the next decade the conquest of the Pampas as far as the Negro was completed, and the threat of hostile Native Americans from that direction was eliminated. This so-called War of the Desert (1879-1880), directed by General Julio A. Roca, opened up vast new areas for grazing and farming. In 1880 Roca, who opposed the ascendancy of Buenos Aires in national affairs, was elected to the presidency. In the aftermath of his victory, the city of Buenos Aires was separated from the province and established as a federal district and national capital. A long-standing boundary dispute with Chile was settled in 1881; through this agreement Argentina acquired the title to the eastern half of Tierra del Fuego. In 1895 a boundary dispute with Brazil was submitted to arbitration by the United States, which awarded about 65,000 sq km (25,000 sq mi) of territory to Argentina. The country became involved in a serious controversy with Chile regarding the Patagonian frontier in 1899. This dispute was finally settled in 1902, with Great Britain acting as arbitrator.

In the half century following 1880, Argentina made remarkable economic and social progress. During the first decade of the 20th century the country emerged as one of the leading nations of South America. It began to figure prominently in hemispheric affairs and, in 1914, helped to mediate a serious dispute between the United States and Mexico. Argentina remained neutral during World War I but played a major role as supplier of foodstuffs to the Allies.

E.

Depression and Turmoil

The world economic crisis that began in 1929 had serious repercussions in Argentina. Unemployment and other hardships caused profound social and political unrest. Economic conditions improved substantially during the administration of General Augustín Justo, but political turbulence intensified, culminating in an unsuccessful Radical uprising in 1933 and 1934. In the period preceding the presidential elections of 1937, Fascist organizations became increasingly active. In May 1936, following the organization of a left-wing Popular Front, the Argentine right-wing parties united in a so-called National Front. This organization openly advocated establishment of a dictatorship, and successfully supported the Finance Minister, Roberto M. Ortiz, for the presidency. Contrary to the expectations and demands of his supporters, however, Ortiz took vigorous steps to strengthen democracy in Argentina. Countermeasures were adopted against the subversive activities of German agents, who had become extremely active after the victory of National Socialism in Germany. The corrupt electoral machinery of the country was overhauled. Ortiz proclaimed neutrality after the outbreak of World War II, but he subsequently cooperated closely with the other American republics on matters of hemispheric defence.

F.

World War II

In July 1940, President Ortiz, unable to function because of illness, designated Vice-President Ramón S. Castillo as acting president. A conservative, Castillo broke with the foreign and domestic policies of his predecessor. At the Pan-American Defence Conference, held at Rio de Janeiro in January 1942 shortly after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Argentina and Chile were the only American nations to refuse to sever relations with the Axis powers.

Castillo, who had officially succeeded to the presidency following the resignation of Ortiz in June 1942, was removed from office one year later by a military group headed by General Arturo Rawson, who favoured severance of relations with Germany and Japan. On the eve of his assumption of office as provisional president, however, Rawson’s associates forced him to resign. The provisional presidency went to General Pedro Ramírez, one of the leaders of the revolt. Ramírez shortly abolished all political parties, suppressed opposition newspapers, and generally stifled the remnants of democracy in Argentina. In January 1944, in a complete reversal of foreign policy, his government broke off diplomatic relations with Japan and Germany.

Fearful that war with Germany was imminent, a military junta, the so-called Colonels, forced Ramírez from office on February 24, 1944. The central figure in the junta was Colonel Juan Domingo Perón who had been chief of labour relations in the Ramírez regime. Despite protestations of sympathy with the Allied cause, the government continued to suppress democratic activity and harbour German agents. In July the US government accused Argentina of aiding the Axis powers. Finally, on March 27, 1945, when the Allied victory in Europe was assured, the country declared war on Germany and Japan. In the following month the government signed the Act of Chapultepec, a compact among American nations for mutual aid against aggressors. Argentina became a charter member of the United Nations in June. Shortly afterwards it was announced that elections would be held early in 1946.

G.

The Perón Era

Revival of political activity in Argentina was marked by the appearance of a new grouping, the Peronistas. Formally organized as the Labour Party, with Perón as its candidate for the presidency, this group found its main support among the most depressed sections of the agricultural and industrial working class. The Peronistas campaigned among these workers, popularly known as descamisados (Spanish, “shirtless ones”), with promises of land, higher wages, and social security. The elections, held on February 24, 1946, resulted in a decisive victory for Perón over his opponent, the candidate of a progressive coalition.

In October 1945, Perón married the former actress Eva Duarte, who, as first lady of Argentina, managed labour relations and social services for her husband’s government until her death in 1952 (see Péron, Eva). Adored by the masses, whom she manipulated with consummate skill, she was, as much as anyone, responsible for the popular following of the Perón regime. In October 1946, President Perón promulgated an ambitious five-year plan for the expansion of the economy. During 1947 he deported a number of German agents and expropriated about 60 German firms. After these moves, relations between Argentina and the United States improved steadily.

H.

New Constitution

In March 1949, Perón promulgated a new constitution permitting the president of the republic to succeed himself in office. Taking advantage of the new law, the Peronista Party in July 1949 renominated Perón as its presidential candidate for 1952. As a result, the opposition parties and press became increasingly critical of the government. The Peronista majority in the congress retaliated in September of that year with legislation providing prison terms for people who showed “disrespect” for government leaders. Many opponents of the regime were jailed in subsequent months. The congress shortly instituted other retaliatory measures, notably suppression of the opposition press.

La Prensa, a leading independent daily newspaper, was suppressed in March 1951. In the following month, congress approved legislation expropriating the paper. Severe restrictions were imposed on the anti-Peronista parties in the campaign preceding the national elections, which took place in November 1951 instead of February 1952, the originally scheduled date. President Perón was re-elected by a large majority, and Peronista candidates won 135 of the 149 seats in the House of Deputies.

I.

Second Term

In January 1953 the government inaugurated a second five-year plan. The plan emphasized increased agricultural output instead of all-out industrialization, which had been the goal of the first five-year plan. During 1953 Argentina concluded important economic and trade agreements with several countries, notably the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and Chile. Foreign commercial transactions in 1953 produced a favourable balance of trade, the first since 1950; but inflationary pressures, which had resulted in an increase in the cost of living of more than 200 per cent since 1948, did not lessen.

In November 1954, Perón accused a group of Roman Catholic clergymen of “fostering agitation” against the government. Despite Church opposition, the government proposed and secured enactment during the next two months of legislation legalizing absolute divorce, granting all benefits of legitimacy to children borne out of wedlock, and legalizing prostitution. The schism between Church and State widened steadily in the succeeding months.

J.

Overthrow

On June 16, 1955, dissident elements of the Argentine navy and its air arm launched a rebellion in Buenos Aires. The army remained loyal, however, and the uprising was quickly crushed. Tension increased during the next few weeks as factions within the government and the military manoeuvred for position. Finally, on September 16, insurgent groupings in all three branches of the armed forces staged a concerted rebellion; after three days of civil war, during which approximately 4,000 people were killed, Perón resigned and took refuge on a Paraguayan gunboat in Buenos Aires harbour. On September 20 the insurgent leader Major General Eduardo Lonardi took office as Provisional President, promising to restore democratic government. Perón went into exile, first in Paraguay and later in Spain.

K.

Provisional Presidents

In less than two months the Lonardi government was itself overthrown in a bloodless coup d’état led by Major-General Pedro Eugenio Aramburu. The announced reason for the revolt was the unwillingness of Lonardi to suppress Peronism, especially in the army and among the workers. Aramburu abrogated the 1949 constitution and restored the liberal charter of 1853. Under the latter, a president may not succeed himself. A Peronist revolt was crushed in June 1956. Thousands were arrested, and 38 alleged Peronistas were executed. Scores of people were subsequently imprisoned on charges of plotting to overthrow the new regime.

Elections to a constitutional assembly were held in July. The moderate Radical Party, headed by Ricardo Balbín, received the most votes, closely followed by the somewhat left-wing Intransigent Radical Party under Arturo Frondizi. The Peronistas, forbidden to function as a party, were instructed by their exiled leader to cast blank ballots. Blanks, which were encouraged also by some minor groups, exceeded the votes of any single party and constituted about one-quarter of the total cast.

L.

Elected Presidents

The constituent assembly, which opened in Santa Fe in September, unanimously readopted the constitution of 1853 after the Intransigent Radicals and some others withdrew. When general elections were held in February 1958, Frondizi won the presidency with Peronist and Communist support, and his Intransigent Radical Party won a majority in the legislature. Representative government was restored on May 1, 1958.

Despite labour unrest and continual rises in living costs, a degree of economic stability was achieved in early 1959 with the aid of substantial foreign loans and credits; by 1960, loans from US public and private agencies alone amounted to $1 billion. Argentina’s participation in the Latin American Free Trade Association, founded in 1960, helped foster a growing trade with other countries in the region from 1960 to 1980.

Frondizi’s popularity declined markedly throughout 1961. In elections held in March 1962, Peronistas, again permitted electoral participation, polled about 35 per cent of the total vote. Although Frondizi forbade five successful Peronist candidates from assuming the provincial governorships they had won, he was deposed at the end of the month by military leaders critical of his leniency towards Peronism. José María Guido, as President of the Senate, became Frondizi’s constitutional successor.

His government, however, was dominated by the armed forces. Both Peronistas and Communists were barred from the national elections of July 1963, in which Arturo Illía, a moderate of the People’s Radical Party, was elected President. Illía announced a programme of national recovery and regulation of foreign investment and tried to control rising prices, shortages, and labour unrest by fixing prices and setting minimum-wage laws.

M.

Military Rule

In elections in 1965, Peronist candidates made significant gains, although Illía’s party retained a 71-seat plurality in the lower house. Labour unrest continued into 1966, and the Peronistas continued to win victories in by-elections. The result was a military coup in June 1966. The junta that then took control named successive presidents, the third of whom, General Alejandro Agustín Lanusse, took office in 1971.

In the early months of his regime, Lanusse began moving towards a return to civilian rule. He announced an economic programme designed to hold down the inflationary spiral, and scheduled national elections for March 1973. In 1972, however, the country became increasingly torn by violence, including strikes, student riots, and terrorist activities. The economy was also headed for a new crisis. The Peronistas had grown increasingly vocal, and they now nominated Perón for the presidency. He remained in Spain until after the date set for candidates to be resident in Argentina, however, and Héctor J. Cámpora was nominated in his place.

N.

Return and Death of Perón

Peronistas swept the elections in March 1973, and Cámpora was inaugurated as president on May 25. Terrorism escalated, now joined by right-wing vigilantes, with numerous kidnappings, soaring ransom demands, and killings. Divisions between moderate and left-wing Peronistas also brought widespread violence. On June 20, when Perón returned to Buenos Aires, a riot resulted in approximately 380 casualties.

A month later Cámpora resigned, and in September Perón was elected president, with more than 61 per cent of the votes. His third wife, Isabel de Perón, was elected vice-president.

The strain, however, proved too much for the ageing Perón. He died on July 1, 1974, and his wife succeeded him, becoming the first woman chief executive of a modern Latin American state. During her presidency, political and economic conditions deteriorated rapidly. In 1975 terrorist activities by right- and left-wing groups resulted in the deaths of more than 700 people. The cost of living increased by 335 per cent, and strikes and demonstrations for higher wages were frequent. After repeated Cabinet crises and an abortive air force rebellion in December 1975, a military junta led by the army commander, Lieutenant-General Jorge Rafael Videla, seized power on March 24, 1976. The junta dissolved the legislature, imposed martial law, and ruled by decree.

O.

Military Rule and the Falklands War

For the first few months after the military takeover, terrorism remained rampant, but it waned somewhat after the Videla government launched its own terror campaign against political opponents. In 1977 the Argentine Commission for Human Rights, in Geneva, blamed the regime for 2,300 political murders, some 10,000 political arrests, and disappearance of 20,000 to 30,000 people, many of whom were murdered by the military junta and buried in unmarked graves.

The economy remained chaotic. Videla was succeeded as president in March 1981 by Field Marshal Roberto Viola, himself deposed in December 1981 by the commander-in-chief of the army, General Leopoldo Fortunato Galtieri. Galtieri’s government rallied the country behind it in April 1982 by forcibly occupying the British-held Falkland Islands (called Islas Malvinas by the Argentines). After the brief Falklands War, the United Kingdom recaptured the islands in June, and the discredited Galtieri was replaced by Major-General Reynaldo Bignone.

The Latin American Integration Association (LAIA), founded in 1980, replaced LAFTA as a more loosely defined entity for reducing tariffs on intracontinental trade. Between 1986 and 1990, Argentina signed a number of integration treaties designed to further reduce trade barriers between Latin American countries.

P.

Return to Democratic Rule

With an unprecedented international debt, and inflation at more than 900 per cent, Argentina held its first presidential election in a decade in October 1983. The winner was the candidate of the Radical Party, Raúl Alfonsín. Under Alfonsín, the nation returned to democracy: the armed forces were reorganized; former military and political leaders were charged with human rights abuses and put on trial; the foreign debt was restructured; fiscal reforms (including a new currency) were introduced; and a treaty to resolve a dispute with Chile over three Beagle Channel islands was approved. Inflation remained unchecked, however, and in May 1989 the Peronist candidate, Carlos Saúl Menem, was elected President. With Argentina’s economy deteriorating rapidly, Menem imposed an austerity programme. During the early 1990s, his government curbed inflation, balanced the budget, sold off state enterprises to private investors, and rescheduled the nation’s debts to commercial banks. In 1992 full diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom were restored, helping to heal the wounds of the Falklands War. In 1993 President Menem reached an agreement with former president Alfonsín to amend the constitution to allow presidential re-election and to shorten the presidential term from six to four years. The measure passed in both legislative houses. In elections held to determine which groups would participate in drafting the amendment, Menem’s party won a majority. In January 1994, the country signed the Treaty of Tlatelolco, making Argentina a nuclear weapons-free state. Also in 1994, leaders from Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay signed the Asunción treaty, which confirmed those countries’ intention to create the Southern Cone Common Market.

In August 1994 the new constitution was introduced, allowing President Menem to stand for re-election. Spillover effects from the financial crisis in Mexico forced the negotiation of an international financial loan package in March 1995 to avoid currency devaluation. President Menem won the May 1995 presidential elections, while his Peronist Party was slightly strengthened in the simultaneous partial legislative elections. In October 1995 he met with the British Prime Minister John Major: the first meeting of heads of government from the two countries since the 1982 Falklands War. Menem declared a state of economic emergency in November, allowing economic policy to be made by decree, after government tax revenues fell short. The Administrative Reform Act passed in February 1996 gave Menem increased executive powers to reform government. In the congressional elections of October 1997, an opposition coalition, including the Radical Civic Union Party, took enough seats to deny the Peronist Party an absolute majority in Congress.

Scandals dogged politics in 1998 in Argentina. Disclosures included the supply of arms to both Croatia and Ecuador, a bribery case involving IBM and the state-owned Banco National, and the existence of a number of Swiss bank accounts belonging to former military officers notorious for their involvement in the “dirty war” during the era of military dictatorship (known as the junta) from 1976 to 1983.

Carlos Menem visited Britain in October 1998, the first Argentine president to do so since 1961. In November 1998 a new independent body was established to appoint judges in an effort to rid the court system of bias. The year ended with Argentina and Chile signing an accord settling their last remaining territorial dispute in the Andes.

In January 1999 the last military president, Reynaldo Bignone, was arrested as part of the ongoing investigation into the theft of babies from political prisoners during the 'dirty war'. The following month Menem introduced a series of bills limiting the flow of illegal immigrants from Bolivia, Paraguay, and Peru into Argentina, and proposed dollarization to stabilize the economy following the disastrous knock-on effects of Brazilian currency devaluation.

The Supreme Court cleared the way for Menem to run for a third term, reversing an earlier decision that claimed it would be unconstitutional for him to do so. However, there was a lack of public support for Menem's presidential candidacy, and Eduardo Duhalde finally ran as the Peronists' candidate in the October elections. Perhaps because of the confusion and rivalry caused by Menem's attempt to stand for re-election, or because of public disquiet at the deepening economic recession, Fernando de la Rúa of the opposition Alliance succeeded to the presidency; he narrowly avoided a run-off election, gaining 48.5 per cent of the vote. The Alliance also became the largest party in the lower house in the October legislative elections, gaining 57 of the 116 seats up for re-election.

P.1.

Presidency of De La Rúa

Relations with Britain improved during 1999: talks were held in London in May with legislative council members from the Falkland Islands; a bilateral panel was established in September with British politicians; and towards the end of the year, military personnel from both countries were involved in the first joint exercises since the Falklands War. The last outstanding dispute with Chile had been resolved in June, but relations with Paraguay deteriorated at the beginning of September, when Argentina refused to extradite Lino Oviedo, wanted in connection with the assassination of Paraguay's vice-president earlier in the year. In November, the incoming government vowed to expel him from the country when it took office, but he subsequently fled to Brazil. In February 2000 Luis Alberto Rojas was arrested; he was believed to have carried out the murder.

In December 2000 the International Monetary Fund (IMF) announced US$40 billion of aid to help relieve Argentina’s economic crisis, after the Argentine Congress passed a budget including a series of austerity measures. The financial cutbacks caused political turmoil, however, and in March 2001 President de la Rúa announced the formation of a government of national unity to try to end the crisis. However, Argentina was plunged into increasing economic crises with general strikes from July onwards. In October the Peronists made significant gains in congressional elections and took control of both houses of parliament. With Argentina on the verge of defaulting on its IMF loan and the IMF in turn refusing to disburse aid, members of the populace took to the streets to demonstrate against the government; at least 27 were killed in the protests. In the face of the escalating troubles, President de la Rúa resigned on December 20. There followed a series of stand-in presidents, including Adolfo Rodriquez Saa who served for a week before resigning due to lack of support. Saa was replaced by Eduardo Duhalde, a Peronist and a former governor of Buenos Aires, on January 1, 2002, and two days later, after Argentina officially defaulted on its debt, emergency powers were introduced and the peso, formerly pegged to the US$, was devalued by 30 per cent.

P.2.

Presidency of Duhalde

In November 2002 the country defaulted on its debt repayment but by January of the following year had renegotiated a renewed repayment plan with the IMF. Amid the continuing economic crisis, Duhalde called elections for March 2003 but these were later put back to April. The first round of voting in the presidential election was inconclusive, with former president Carlos Menem gaining 24 per cent and the provincial governor Néstor Kirchner 22 per cent. Menem, fearing defeat in the run-off timetabled for May, pulled out of the contest shortly before the deciding round. Kirchner took office on May 25.

P.3.

Presidencies of the Kirchners

Kirchner faced continuing economic problems but during his term of office the debt to the IMF was repaid and there was limited economic growth. However, unemployment remained high and poverty widespread. In a resurgent drive against corruption, the laws offering protection to former military personnel involved in the “dirty war” were overturned in 2005 by the Supreme Court, and in a high-profile case in 2007 a former police chaplain was found guilty of murder and torture and was sentenced to life imprisonment. Despite continued popularity, Kirchner decided against standing for a second term of office, lending his support instead to the campaign of his wife, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner of the Front for Victory Alliance, a former senator. She won the election by securing around 45 per cent of the vote in the first round of the election in October 2007.