II.

Land and Resources

A vast region of highlands, known as the Brazilian highlands or Brazilian plateau, and the basin of the River Amazon are the dominant geographical features of Brazil. The plateau is an eroded tableland occupying most of the south-eastern half of the country. With a general elevation of about 305 to 915 m (1,000 to 3,000 ft), this tableland is irregularly divided by mountain ranges and numerous river valleys. Its south-eastern edge, which is generally parallel to the coast, rises abruptly from the ocean in various areas, particularly north of latitude 10° south and south of latitude 20° south. Among the principal ranges of the Brazilian plateau are the Serra da Mantiqueira, the Serra do Mar, and the Serra Geral. Elevations in these and the other ranges average under about 1,220 m (4,000 ft), but several of the ranges are surmounted by lofty peaks, including Pico da Bandeira (2,890 m/9,482 ft) in the Serra da Mantiqueira, and Pedra Açu (2,232 m/7,323 ft) in the Serra do Mar. Much of the tableland terrain consists of rolling prairies (campos), and extensive tracts are forested.

The basin of the River Amazon occupies more than one third of the surface of the country. Lowlands predominate in the Amazon Basin; elevations rarely exceed about 150 m (500 ft), and swamps and floodplains occupy vast areas of the region. Large parts of the basin are covered by tropical rainforests (selvas). Because of the impenetrability of this growth, huge areas of the Brazilian lowlands have only recently been explored. On the northern edge of the Amazon Basin is another mountainous area, part of the uplift known as the Guiana Highlands; ranges include the Tumucumaque Mountains, with elevations up to about 915 m (3,000 ft), the Acaraí Mountains (maximum elevation 460 m/1,500 ft), and the Parima Mountains (maximum elevation 1,525 m/5,000 ft). Neblina Peak (3,014 m/9,888 ft), at the border with Venezuela, is the highest point in Brazil.

The Brazilian coastline, with a total length of some 9,655 km (6,000 mi), has singularly regular contours, particularly in the north, but several deep indentations provide excellent natural harbours. Especially noteworthy are the harbours of Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, and Recife. Excluding sections in which the Brazilian Plateau projects into the Atlantic Ocean, the coast is fringed by a narrow coastal plain.

A.

Rivers

More than two thirds of Brazil is drained by the Amazon and Tocantins rivers, about one fifth by the River Plate (Río de la Plata) system, and the remainder by the São Francisco and other smaller rivers. The Amazon with its great branches—the Negro, Japurá, and Putumayo on the north and the Javari, Purus, Juruá, Madeira, Tapajós, and Xingu on the south—and the Tocantins, which is a tributary of the River Pará, the southern distributary of the Amazon, afford a system of internal navigation comparable only to that of the Mississippi River in the United States. The length of the Amazon from Iquitos in Peru to its mouth on the north-eastern coast of Brazil is about 3,700 km (2,300 mi), which is all navigable by ocean-going ships. The most important navigable waterways in the plateau region are the São Francisco and Parnaíba rivers. The former river is interrupted about 305 km (190 mi) above its mouth by the Paulo Afonso Falls, but its upper course is navigable for more than 1,450 km (900 mi). The São Francisco is also used for irrigation. The Parnaíba, which, like most of the rivers traversing the highlands contains falls and rapids, is navigable for about 645 km (400 mi)—less than half its length. Rapids also impede navigation in the River Uruguay. One of the chief rivers of the La Plata system, it flows through Brazilian territory for more than 965 km (600 mi) and forms most of the Brazilian-Argentine border. The other great La Plata river systems flowing through Brazil are the Paraguai and the Alto Paraná rivers, which are both important inland waterways.

B.

Climate

Climatic conditions in Brazil range from tropical to subtemperate. The average January and July temperatures in Brasília are 22° C (72° F) and 20° C (68° F) respectively. The averages in Rio de Janeiro for the same months are 29° C (83° F) and 20° C (67° F). Average annual precipitation in Brasília is 1,600 mm (63 in), and in Rio de Janeiro it is 1,760 mm (67 in). Tropical conditions prevail also over most of that portion of the coastal plain lying to the north of the tropic of Capricorn, but oceanic winds have a moderating effect on the high temperatures and humidity. The annual rainfall in this part of the coastal belt varies between 1,041 and 2,286 m (41 and 90 in). In the coastal region south of the tropic of Capricorn, climatic conditions are marked by sharp seasonal variations. Winter temperatures as low as -5.6° C (22° F) are occasionally recorded in the extreme south, and frosts are common throughout the region. Precipitation averages less than 1,016 mm (40 in) annually in the southern part of the coastal belt. In the east-central Brazilian uplands the climate is subtropical but, because of the higher altitudes, sharp variations of temperature occur in the day and the nights are cool. This region is frequently subject to severe droughts. In the highlands to the south and west, precipitation ranges from adequate to abundant. Temperatures vary between subtropical and temperate in the south-eastern highlands, which is the most densely populated section of the country.

C.

Natural Resources

Although the area under cultivation totals only about 62 million hectares (about 153 million acres), or less than 7.5 per cent of the total land area, Brazil is an important agricultural country. It has immense timber resources, the forest areas covering some 5.7 million sq km (2.2 million sq mi). Mineral resources are extensive, including quartz crystal, industrial diamonds, chrome, iron ore, phosphates, coal, manganese, zirconium, beryllium, petroleum, mica, graphite, titanium, copper, gold, oil, bauxite, zinc, tin, and mercury.

D.

Plants and Animals

The flora of Brazil is highly diversified, particularly in the Amazon Basin. Hundreds of species of plant life, including bignonias, laurels, myrtles, and mimosas, abound in this region. Palms and hardwoods are abundant, as are plants of the Euphorbiaceae family (one of the chief sources of crude rubber). Mangroves, cacaos, dwarf palms, and brazilwoods thrive in the coastal region. Among the indigenous and widely cultivated fruits are the pineapple, fig, custard apple, mango, banana, guava, grape, and orange. Vegetation in the river valleys of the plateau region is luxuriant, but in the highlands the forests consist largely of deciduous species, and are far less dense. This section also has extensive tracts of bushes and open plains. Coniferous trees thrive in those areas where temperate climatic conditions prevail. In the arid sections of the plateau region, cacti and other spiny plants are common.

The animal life of Brazil is also extremely varied and differs in many respects from that of North America and the eastern hemisphere. Larger animals include the puma, jaguar, ocelot, the rare bush dog, and foxes. Peccary, tapir, anteater, sloth, opossum, and armadillo are abundant. Deer are plentiful in the south, and monkeys of many species abound in the selva (rainforests). Many varieties of birds are indigenous to the country. The reptilian fauna includes several species of alligator and numerous species of snake, notably the bushmaster, fer-de-lance, and boa. Fish and turtle abound in the rivers, lakes, and coastal waters of Brazil. Animal smuggling is rife in Brazil; estimates suggest that over 35 million have disappeared from the rainforest in this fashion.

The issue of deforestation in the Amazon Basin is an international environmental issue. The country’s tropical rainforest is one of the most complex ecosystems in the world, containing much of the world’s biodiversity. During the early 1990s the forest was being destroyed, to make way for agriculture, at a rate of 35,000 sq km (13,500 sq mi) a year. A rainforest protection programme, funded by the Brazilian government, the EU, and the G-7 group, was agreed in 1996. In September 1999 an environmental bill came into force making deforestation (along with pollution) punishable by fines and prison sentences. A scientific report published in January 2001 predicted that deforestation would reduce the rainforest by 42 per cent by 2020, but this figure was fiercely disputed by Brazilian officials. However, the government agreed to reassess its development programme in the region. In August 2002 the Brazilian government announced the creation of the largest tropical forest reserve in the world—the Tumucumaque National Park in Amapá. The park covers some 3.8 million hectares (15,000 sq mi), an area roughly the size of Switzerland.

E.

Soils

The soil is primarily tropical and subtropical terra rosa (red earth). Amazonia, the valley of the Amazon and its tributaries, is a vast alluvial plain in which flooding continually washes away and replenishes topsoil. A number of low alluvial plateaux, however, can be found above normal floor levels. Some inland regions of the north-east are semi-arid. In lowland areas, the soil supports dense rainforests. The state of São Paulo is marked by fertile, almost purple, terra rosa, because of basalt decomposition accelerated by heat and humidity.

F.

Environmental Concerns

Access to sanitation and safe water is generally good, but local water pollution occurs in urban centres. Concentrations of lead and sulphur dioxide are within the World Health Organization’s (WHO) guidelines in São Paulo because of the use of alcohol as fuel and because of curbs on emissions. Traffic growth still remains a cause of concern because of the resulting levels of carbon monoxide and damage to the ozone layer of the Earth’s atmosphere.