Chinese Mythology

I

Introduction

Chinese Mythology, traditional beliefs of the Chinese people on their origins and on the nature of the universe. In a narrow sense, the term is used for those beliefs that pre-date the rational thought of the age of the classical Chinese philosophers (5th to 3rd centuries bc); in a wider sense, it is used to describe the panoply of folk customs and legends that were generated throughout Chinese history, and which still permeate Chinese society.

In spite of a rich and varied mythology, China is not renowned as one of the great myth-creating civilizations. In contrast to the highly developed mythology of ancient Greece (see Greek Mythology), ancient Chinese myths are fragmentary and laconic. This may partly be ascribed to the attitude of the scholars who maintained the written record of Chinese civilization. The dominant Confucian strain of scholarship was largely rationalistic in approach: its texts were philosophical and historical rather than imaginative and literary. Confucianism utilized early records for evidence that supported its view of the universe, historicizing many early myths. Most of the philosophical schools cited myths to support their arguments, and where their writings are the sole extant account, there is often only a distorted or partial view of the original narrative. At the same time, the myths seem to have been toned down to fit in with the prevailing social morality and there is now little evidence in Chinese mythology of the brutality and sexuality typical of mythology from other parts of the world.

II

Origins and Evolution of Chinese Mythology

Many of early Chinese myths are located in the period before the first dynasty, the Xia dynasty, conventionally dated to the 22nd to 17th centuries bc. One of the earliest relevant texts is the Shi jing (Book of Odes), a collection of poems dating from the 12th to 7th centuries bc. It is not clear when these early myths were first generated, but it seems likely that there was a long period of oral transmission before they appeared in texts.

Two major sources of early myths are the “Tian wen” (Questions of Heaven) from the Chu ci and the Shan hai jing (Classic of Mountains and Seas). The reputed author of the former was Qu Yuan, a native of the southern state of Chu. The culture of this area was noted throughout Chinese history for its intuitive, imaginative approach, as opposed to that of the more rationalistic and staid north. The Shan hai jing, traditionally attributed to the Emperor Yu, is a composite work with parts dating from the 5th century bc. Categorized as a work of geography, it is, in part, a shaman’s book and includes many myths and legends about the places described.

Many references to myths are also included in philosophical texts, particularly Daoist texts like the Zhuang zi, the Lie zi, and the Huai nan zi, but also Confucian works like the Meng zi (Mencius), and others such as Wang Chong’s Lun heng (Disquisitions). The early imperial period, from the 2nd century bc to the 5th century ad, saw the reworking and rationalization of mythical material by many writers. For example, Sima Qian in his Shi ji (Historical Records) included historicized biographies of mythical figures, but changed the traditional emphasis to accord with early Han Daoist preferences. Hence, Huang Di (the Yellow Emperor) emerged from a relatively lowly placing to become the founding ancestor of the Chinese people. From the Tang and Song dynasties onward, the practice of compiling large-scale encyclopedias resulted in the preservation of much rich source material on myths.

The development of a religious strain of Daoism in the Han, and the introduction of Buddhism from India during the late Han onward, gave a new impetus to Chinese mythology. The philosophies of the classical period had been rationalistic, as Confucianism and Legalism were, or naturalistic, as pre-Han Daoism was. Gods, ghosts, and spirits, the essence of mythology, were largely absent. By contrast, the new religions were concerned with cosmological speculation, with explaining the workings of the universe and the processes of life and death. They were aimed at popular audiences and incorporated elements from existing folk religion and legends to develop their own mythology. Hence, Guan Yin was originally a Chinese princess of the early 7th century bc, famous for her compassion, before she was taken over and transformed into Avalokitesvara, the Buddhist Goddess of Mercy.

Both Buddhism and Daoism offered the possibility of humans transcending normal earthly existence and performing miraculous feats. The Daoists had their xian (immortals) and the Buddhists their arhats and bodhisattvas, figures that provided rich scope for myths and legends. Here can be seen clearly the process of euhemerization (transformation of an historical figure into a mythical one) that is assumed to have been the source of many early Chinese myths. Thus, Zhang Sheng was gradually transformed into Guan Di, the God of War, a major deity. In this later period, with the development of literature and drama, these figures became the inspiration for some of China’s best-known literary works. San guo yan yi (The Romance of the Three Kingdoms) includes stories of Zhang Sheng’s exploits, and Xi you ji (The Journey to the West) is a fabulous account of Xuan Zang’s travels to India to fetch Buddhist sutras. He is aided by the divinity Sun Houzi (Monkey), one of the best-loved characters in all Chinese literature. Mythical figures have also been the inspiration for much painting and sculpture (see Chinese Art and Architecture). A famous example is the series of stone reliefs from the Wu family tomb, known as the Wuliang Shrine, in Jiaxiang, Shandong. These date from 151 bc and include representations of such mythical early rulers as Fu Xi, Shen Nong, the Yellow Emperor, Yao, Shun, and Yu. To this day, Nü Wa repairing heaven, Lao zi riding his ox, the Herdboy and the Weaving Maid, Chang E flying to the Moon, and other mythical characters remain popular subjects for artists.

III

Major Themes

Early Chinese myths treat themes that are common to mythologies elsewhere in the world. There are creation myths, explaining the origins of the world and human beings; myths about the Sun, Moon, stars, and natural phenomena; myths about dynastic founders and civilizers, culture heroes and villains, mythical creatures, and strange peoples from foreign lands. Many of the myths appear in variant versions, sometimes under different names.

A

Creation Myths

The origin of the universe is presented in naturalistic terms in the “Tian wen” and the Huai nan zi. In the beginning there was a shapeless mass that gradually separated out as the lighter matter rose to form Heaven, giving rise to the yang force, and the heavier matter congealed to form Earth, giving rise to the yin force. The interplay of yin and yang then resulted in the seasons, the Sun and Moon, fire, water, and the elements, and finally the myriad creatures. A more popular later version of this has Heaven and Earth formed like a chicken’s egg with Pan Gu born in the middle. Tired of the darkness, he one day broke the egg with an axe, after which Heaven and Earth separated and Pan Gu grew between them, holding up the sky as it rose ever higher. After 18,000 years, he grew exhausted and died. The rest of the universe was formed from the parts of his dying body. His breath became the wind, his eyes the Sun and Moon, his muscles the soil, his blood the rivers, his skin and fine body hair the plants and trees, and his teeth and bones the rocks and stones.

The goddess Nü Wa (also known as Nü Gua) is credited with the creation of humans and is said to have had the upper torso of a human and the lower body of a snake. Early versions of the myth have her initially kneading individual human figures by hand from loess clay, and later using a builder’s rope and mud to mass-produce them. These different methods of production were said to account for the differences between noble and commoner. An alternative, later version has Nü Wa as the sister of the deity Fu Xi, with the two of them the sole inhabitants of Earth. They discuss becoming man and wife but feel ashamed and climb the sacred mountain, Mount Kunlun, to ask Heaven for a sign as to whether they should do so or not. Heaven indicates that they should, and they make fans from grass to hide their faces. In Han dynasty bas-reliefs they are represented with snake-like lower bodies intertwined.