Spanish Art and Architecture

I

Introduction

Spanish Art and Architecture, art and architecture of Spain from ancient times to the present day. The history of art in Spain stretches back to palaeolithic rock paintings, including those at Altamira, dating from about 12,000 bc. There are also remains from the 1st millennium bc, when the country was colonized by Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians. The Romans drove the Carthaginians from Spain during the Second Punic War (218-201 bc) and controlled the country until the early 5th century ad. A good deal of art survives from this period of six centuries, including mosaics, fragments of wall paintings, and ruins of buildings of various types, notably the famous aqueduct at Segovia, one of the best-preserved examples of its kind. However, there is nothing about any of this art that is specifically Spanish.

Roman rule in Spain was ended by the Visigoths, a Germanic people who occupied most of the country in the 5th century and were dominant until the early 8th century. They excelled at metalwork and also left extensive architectural remains, mainly small churches that mingle Roman and Byzantine elements. In 711, Spain was overrun again, this time from the south, by the Moors from Africa, who soon occupied most of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal). Under the Moors, a brilliant Islamic civilization flourished in Spain, and in the 9th century there began to emerge a distinctive style in which Islamic and Christian elements were blended. This style is called Mozarabic and is generally regarded as marking the beginning of a specifically national Spanish tradition in art.

II

Moorish, Mozarabic, and Romanesque

A

Architecture

There are many outstanding, purely Islamic, buildings in Spain, mainly in the south of the country where Moorish culture flourished longest. The two most famous are the Great Mosque at Córdoba (begun 786), a vast rectangle in plan, with an interior looking like a forest of columns and arcades, and the Alhambra at Granada, built mainly in the 14th century as the palace of the last Moorish rulers in Spain. It is the only medieval Islamic palace to survive largely intact. Externally, it is fortress-like (the name is a corruption of the Arabic for “red castle”, in reference to the colour of some of the bricks used in its construction); inside, however, it is an astonishing vision of luxury, with marble and mosaic in abundance around shady gardens and fountained courtyards. Some of the stonework is cut so finely that it looks almost like lace.

Mozarabic (literally, “arabized”) architecture is found only in the north of the country, the product of architects and craftsmen who were refugees from the Moorish south. The Moors tolerated Christians living under their rule, but imposed restrictions on what they could build. Characteristic features of Mozarabic architecture include horseshoe-shaped arches and ribbed “melon” domes. The largest and most impressive building in the style is the church of San Miguel de Escalada, near León, founded by refugee monks from Córdoba in 913.

Romanesque architecture—like Mozarabic—is confined to the northern half of Spain, as during the period when it flourished (11th and 12th centuries) the south was still largely in the hands of the Moors. In Catalonia, in the north-eastern corner of the country, there was influence from Italy, but elsewhere France was the major source of inspiration. Often there was also some Islamic influence, as in the dome of Zamora Cathedral, which resembles a Moorish helmet. Similar features are found in other churches of the Douro region, near the border with Portugal.

The most famous Spanish Romanesque building is the cathedral at Santiago de Compostela, which apart from Jerusalem and Rome was the most important destination for Christian pilgrims throughout the Middle Ages. The cathedral is dedicated to St James (Santiago in Spanish) the Great, one of Christ's 12 Apostles. In 835 his remains are said to have been discovered in the little northern kingdom of Asturias, the only part of the country unconquered by the Moors, and this provided a rallying point for the campaign to drive the invaders from the country—the Reconquista. Eventually, St James came to be regarded not only as the patron saint of Spain but also as the champion of all Christendom against the infidel, and pilgrims from all over Europe flocked to his shrine. The struggle against the Moors helped to create a spirit of religious zeal that was a major feature of the country's art for centuries.

The cathedral at Santiago de Compostela was begun in 1078, replacing an earlier building that had been destroyed by the Moors in 997, and was consecrated in 1211. Many additions and alterations were later made, the west front being built in the 18th century. The cathedral is very large and spacious, so as to accommodate huge numbers of pilgrims, with an ambulatory at the east end to facilitate circulation in the building, and numerous chapels for the display of relics. As such, it is similar in many ways to the major pilgrimage churches that were built in France on the four main routes to Santiago.

B

Painting

The earliest Spanish painting is represented by Mozarabic manuscripts from the 9th and 10th centuries. They are characterized by simplified, flat forms and strong, sometimes harsh colouring. Some influence from Islamic art is discernible, but they are highly distinctive and unlike any other manuscript painting of the time. Much more important, however, is the very rich legacy of Romanesque painting. More Romanesque wall paintings survive from Spain than from any other country and only Italy has more panel paintings (altar frontals) from the period. Catalonia was the most important area for Romanesque painting in Spain; there is a superb collection in the Museum of Catalan Art in Barcelona, including many wall paintings that have been removed from their original setting. The finest are from the church of San Clemente at Tahull, which was dedicated in 1123. Their vitality of line and forcefulness of characterization, especially in the extraordinarily expressive Christ in Majesty, place them among the masterpieces of Romanesque art.

C

Sculpture

Spain is also rich in Romanesque sculpture. One of the most impressive ensembles is at the monastery of Santo Domingo de Silos, near Burgos, which was an important pilgrimage centre because it housed the relics of a local saint, Dominic (in Spanish, Domingo). The two-storey cloister of the monastery is adorned with a superb series of carved capitals. Spanish Romanesque sculpture often shows strong French influence—indeed, there is evidence of French sculptors having worked in Spain at the time—but here the workmanship seems to be Islamic. The date of the sculpture is a matter of dispute among art historians but is generally put at about 1100. A beautiful altar frontal from the monastery made of gilt copper and enamel can be seen in the Archaeological Museum at Burgos. It shows Christ and the 12 Apostles, with the heads cast in relief. Such luxury works in precious or semi-precious materials are now usually classified as “minor arts”; at the time, however, they were generally more highly regarded than large-scale sculpture.

III

Gothic