French Art and Architecture

I

Introduction

French Art and Architecture, the painting, sculpture, architecture, and associated arts of France from its emergence as a cohesive kingdom in the late 9th century ad to the present day. It is one of the major traditions in Western art: particularly in the medieval period and for much of the 17th, 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, French art has been of international as well as national significance, providing the inspiration and model for many other Western cultures.

Art in France goes back at least as far as the prehistoric cave paintings at Lascaux (c. 15,000 bc), and there are also remains from Celtic, Roman, and Carolingian times, for example. However, it was not until ad 843 that the country we now call France effectively emerged, at the Treaty of Verdun. This brought peace among the grandsons of the Holy Roman Emperor Charlemagne, who had been fighting a civil war over the territories they inherited, and the kingdom of the West Franks (roughly France) was separated from that of the East Franks (roughly Germany). There continued to be instability until the foundation of the Capetian dynasty (987-1328) by Hugh Capet, who established Paris as his capital. Subsequently there were many fluctuations in the country's boundaries, particularly during the Hundred Years War against England in the 14th and 15th centuries, and it was not until after this war that France became a permanently unified state. However, long before this the country had a distinctive tradition in art. France is a large country (only Russia and Ukraine are larger among European countries) and there have often been strong regional variations in its art.

II

Romanesque and Gothic

France was one of the main centres of the Romanesque style, which emerged around the year 1000. It brought to architecture a new massiveness and confidence, following a long period when Western civilization seemed in danger of collapse. The building boom that took place at this time of recovery was acknowledged by a contemporary monk, Raoul Glaber, who in 1003 wrote in his chronicle: “It was as if the world renewed itself, spreading a glittering robe of churches over everything.”

Many of the finest churches of the period were built under the auspices of Cluniac monks. The mother church at Cluny was founded in 910, then rebuilt from 955 and again from 1085; the third rebuilding was the largest church in Christendom at the time and one of the central works of Romanesque architecture. Little of it remains, but many other impressive works of the time survive, including the cathedral of Saint Sernin (c. 1080-1120) in Toulouse and the abbey church of Saint-Étienne in Caen (early 12th century).

France is also home to some of the finest Romanesque sculpture, and the name of one of the great sculptors of the period, Gislebertus, has fortunately survived, as he proudly carved it underneath his huge and majestic representation of the Last Judgement (c. 1140) over the west doorway of Autun Cathedral in Burgundy.

In painting, the church of Saint Savin-sur-Gartempe, some 50 km (30 mi) east of Poitiers, contains France's most extensive cycle of Romanesque wall paintings (c. 1100); those in the crypt show scenes from the lives of the two patron saints of the Church, Saint Savinus and Saint Cyprien. The most famous pictorial work of the Romanesque period associated with France is, however, the Bayeux Tapestry (Musée de la Tapisserie de la Reine Mathilde, Bayeux), which is in fact an embroidery rather than a tapestry. This long strip of fabric records, in a vivid narrative, the successful invasion of England in 1066 by William the Conqueror. It was probably commissioned by Bishop Odo of Bayeux (William's half-brother) soon after the conquest, but it was almost certainly made in England, which was renowned for embroidery at this time.

Whereas Romanesque architecture evolved simultaneously in several countries, the Gothic style that superseded it was born in France and from there spread throughout Europe. It originated with the rebuilding (1140-1144) of the abbey church of Saint-Denis, near Paris. Only part of this survives (the ambulatory of the choir), but in this revolutionary structure the heaviness of the Romanesque style gives way to a graceful, airy system of columns, arches, and vaults.

Over the following century, a series of great French cathedrals—mainly fairly near to Paris—saw the Gothic style reach its apogee in a phase sometimes known as High Gothic. They include Notre Dame in Paris (1163-1250), Bourges (c. 1190-1275), Chartres (mostly 1194-1220), Reims (begun 1211), and Amiens (1220-1270). As well as being sublime works of art, they represent extraordinary technological feats in raising soaring vaults so high above the ground with the aid of increasingly slender supports. These buildings often incorporated elaborate sculpture, particularly around porches, and superb stained-glass windows (Chartres is particularly rich in both and so is often considered the archetypal Gothic cathedral). The expressive, elongated Gothic style also came to affect smaller-scale painting, as in the illuminations for the Saint Louis Psalter (1253-1270, Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris).

In France (as in most of northern Europe) the Gothic style remained an important force well into the 16th century, though it was increasingly modified by the spirit of the Renaissance, emanating from Italy. The later phases of French Gothic architecture are often described by the terms Rayonnant (which covers the period c. 1240-c. 1350) and Flamboyant (which extends into the 16th century). Both terms are named after types of tracery characteristic of these periods: Rayonnant (meaning “radiating”) refers to the rose windows typical of the time, and Flamboyant (literally “flaming”) alludes to the flowing, flame-like shapes found in many windows of the late Gothic period, when the style moved away from the lucid grandeur of High Gothic, tending to become increasingly ornate. A good example is the church of St Maclou in Rouen (1432-1531).

Lavish decoration is seen in secular as well as ecclesiastical architecture of the period, for example in the splendid house (1443-1451) built in Bourges by the wealthy merchant and banker Jacques Coeur—a rare survival of an urban dwelling of the time. There is sometimes a Gothic elegance even in the castles and fortifications of the time. Perhaps the most spectacular medieval fortifications in France are those encircling the town of Carcassonne, which were built mainly in the 13th century (they were heavily restored in the 19th century).

In painting, the continuation of the Gothic style can be seen in the illuminations of the Rohan Book of Hours (c. 1418-1425, Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris) and in the outstanding French panel painting of the 15th century, the emotionally intense Avignon Pietà (c. 1460, Louvre, Paris), attributed to Enguerrand Charonton (or Quarton).

Gradually, French art came to be influenced by Italy: Italian influences—particularly in the masterful rendering of space—can be seen in the famous Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry (c. 1413-1416, Musée Condé, Chantilly), a Book of Hours made for Jean, Duc de Berry, which contains beautiful illuminations by the three Limbourg brothers, who were born in the Netherlands but worked in France. The most important French painter of the 15th century, Jean Fouquet, visited Italy in the late 1440s. Italian influence is evident in certain features of his work, for example the inclusion of classical architectural details, but in general he remained true to his northern origins. He produced both panel paintings and manuscript illuminations, notably those in the Book of Hours of Étienne Chevalier (c. 1455, mainly in the Musée Condé, Chantilly).

III

The Renaissance

Renaissance ideas began to have a more direct impact on French art as a result of the Italian wars that began in 1494 with the invasion of Italy by Charles VIII of France. His campaigns were continued by his successor Francis I, who fought—primarily with Spain—for control of the vulnerable Italian city-states, and the wars were not ended until 1556, by the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis. Ultimately, France failed to gain any territory, but the contact with Italy had a powerful impact on French art, with Francis I—who became a great lover of Italian culture—striving to measure up against the great Renaissance patrons. He even succeeded in attracting to France the most famous Italian artist of the day, Leonardo da Vinci, who spent an honoured retirement at the royal chateau of Cloux, near Amboise, until his death in 1519.

Leonardo did little if any serious artistic work in the two or three years he spent in France, but other Italian artists imported by Francis were highly active. The two most important were Rosso Fiorentino, who moved to France in 1531, and Francesco Primaticcio, who followed in 1532. Together they worked on the decoration of Francis's residence at Fontainebleau, near Paris, which in 1528 he had begun transforming from a hunting lodge into a palace. Their work, chiefly in decorative painting and stuccowork, formed the basis of the School of Fontainebleau. This term is used to refer not only to the artists who actually worked at the palace, but more broadly to designate the Mannerist style created there, which became the dominant force in 16th-century French art. The style was elegant and sophisticated, figures characteristically having long limbs and small heads.

Rosso died in 1540, but Primaticcio continued to work at Fontainebleau into the 1560s and was joined, in about 1552, by the Italian painter Niccolò dell'Abate, who introduced Mannerist landscape painting to France. The Italian sculptor Benvenuto Cellini also worked in France from 1540 to 1545 (for a time at Fontainebleau), one of his most famous works being the gold salt cellar (1540-1543, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna) he made for Francis I.

The elongated figure style of Mannerism is evident in the work of such French artists as the painter François Clouet and the sculptor Jean Goujon. Clouet, court painter from 1541 until his death in 1571, specialized in portraiture. His father, Jean Clouet, who was probably of Flemish birth, had preceded him in working for the Crown. Goujon merged the Fontainebleau style with more purely classical elements to create a very individual manner of great grace and delicacy; it is seen at its best in his relief carvings of nymphs for the Fountain of the Innocents (1547-1549) in Paris, which are now in the Louvre.

In architecture, a further important impulse from Italy came through the agency of Sebastiano Serlio, who arrived in France in 1541 and remained there until his death in 1554. He designed few buildings, but he is highly important for his treatise L'Architettura (issued in parts from 1537), which was the most influential architectural handbook of the day because of its copious illustrations.

Two native architects—Pierre Lescot and more particularly Philibert Delorme—also spread the influence of Italian architectural principles in France. Lescot is known primarily for his rebuilding of the Louvre (at this time a royal palace) from 1546, a work commissioned by Francis I. The building was unfinished at Lescot's death, but his very elegant classical style set the tone for the various other architects who greatly expanded the palace over the following three centuries. Delorme, who visited Italy early in his career, was the greatest French architect of the 16th century. Almost all his buildings have perished, but his sophisticated and inventive classical style can be seen in the surviving fragments of the château of Anet (c. 1550), which he designed for Diane de Poitiers, mistress of Henry II. Delorme was an intellectual who helped to create the image of the architect as a learned designer rather than a master craftsman. He spread his ideas in two influential architectural treatises (1561 and 1567).

A

The Wars of Religion

The art of the later 16th century in France developed against the backdrop of the Wars of Religion (between Protestants and Catholics), which took place intermittently between 1562 and 1598. This time of instability was an inauspicious one for the arts, but the greatest French sculptor of the 16th century, Germain Pilon, flourished during the period. His earlier work shows the influence of Primaticcio's elegant stucco decoration at Fontainebleau, but his style evolved to become more realistic and emotionally charged. Under Primaticcio's direction, he executed the tomb of Henry II and Catherine de Médicis (1563-1570) in the abbey church of Saint-Denis, Paris, which includes poignant marble figures of the king and queen, shown stretched out in death. Outstanding among his later work is the bronze relief of The Deposition (c. 1580-1585, Louvre, Paris). In its dramatic intensity it shows the influence of Michelangelo, though it remains extremely individual.

French painting was at a low ebb at this time, one of the few distinctive personalities being Antoine Caron, who worked in a gaudy, febrile style; appropriately for a time of civil war, his output includes scenes of massacres (Massacres Under the Triumvirate, 1566, Louvre, Paris. In architecture, one of the leading figures was Jacques Androuet du Cerceau the Elder, the first of a dynasty of architects that remained active almost to the end of the following century. None of his buildings survive, but he is remembered for his books of engravings, particularly Les Plus Excellents Bastiments de France (2 vols, 1576-1579), which is a fundamental source of information on French Renaissance architecture.