Domestic Violence

Domestic Violence, threatening behaviour or actual harm inflicted upon a person by a member of her or his own household. It is commonly thought of as being inflicted by men upon their female partners (hence the term “wife-battering”). However, the more neglected problems of violence by women towards their male partners and violence within same-sex relationships are gradually receiving more attention. Violence may also be inflicted by children on their parents (particularly where the parents are elderly) and by parents on their children (although this is often described as child abuse, especially when sexual offences are also involved).

Domestic violence has been found in many different cultures throughout history, but attitudes towards it have varied. For many centuries women lacked legal rights in most parts of the world, and husbands, who were responsible for their wives' behaviour, were allowed to chastise their wives physically. For example, the common law in 17th-century England allegedly permitted a husband to whip his wife, provided that the switch was no bigger than his thumb. The husband's “power of correction” has been outlawed in many parts of the world, although attitudes towards this have changed more slowly in certain countries. For example, human rights researchers have found that domestic violence is tolerated in Brazil, Russia, and Ghana, although it is technically illegal. However, sociologists have shown that men have continued to use violence to exert control over their families. Domestic violence is now a serious issue for governments, legal professionals, and academics, with more cases being reported as victims increasingly feel able to come forward, due to changes in attitude.

Domestic violence has been explained as a form of bullying, whereby attackers exert authority by violence because they fear they have no other means of control over a situation. For this reason, it is often found in families experiencing unemployment, financial hardship, or similar difficulties. Economic factors are the cause of one of the most extreme forms of domestic violence—dowry deaths in India—where new brides are murdered or driven to suicide by their husbands if their parents do not pay the dowry demanded.

Alcohol and drugs are significant related factors: it has been estimated that violence is twice as likely in families with alcohol problems than in those without. Some studies have detected certain trends among abusers: they tend to be young (in their 30s or younger) and have not been educated beyond secondary-school level; many also have criminal records for violence outside the family. However, many researchers stress that there is no such thing as a typical abuser, and that domestic violence also occurs among middle-class, educated people. Psychologists have pointed out that upbringing plays a crucial part: people who were mistreated in childhood or who witnessed violence between their parents are more likely to mistreat their own offspring than people from non-violent homes; in addition, women who witnessed spouse abuse in childhood are particularly likely to become victims of it in later life.

Domestic violence may result in lacerations, bruises, and other more severe physical injuries, including miscarriages in the case of pregnant women. It also causes long-term psychological damage: victims often suffer from low self-esteem and many blame themselves for their treatment. It is common for victims to find themselves unable to leave their attacker, both for psychological reasons and because of the difficulty in finding alternative accommodation (see below). In a number of well-publicized, extreme cases this situation has resulted in the killing of the abuser by the victim.

Although domestic violence is a form of assault and so is technically illegal worldwide, victims have often found the criminal law unhelpful, because legal systems in many countries maintain that the law should not intervene in private relations within the home. Certain issues may actually be excluded from the criminal law—for example, it is not possible for a wife to bring charges of rape against her husband in some countries, such as Brazil. The main means of legal redress for victims generally is to take civil action, in the form of a court order either to forbid a partner from molesting the applicant or their children, or to bar the attacker from the family home. However, this is a complex process and court orders are difficult to enforce: a party may be punished for contempt of court if the abuse persists, but the courts have no way of actively preventing further violence. Help for victims may be sought from housing authorities and social and medical services, as well as from refuges run by charities. Such refuges may provide the victim with alternative accommodation in the short term, but victims do not have a statutory right to permanent rehousing from governments. Child victims may be monitored by child protection agencies and if this proves ineffective, may be removed from their parents and placed in local authority care.

On the whole, changing attitudes towards domestic violence have led to new initiatives to help victims in certain countries. For example, in Australia, the Domestic Violence Crisis Service was set up to enable volunteer helpers to work with the police, providing support for victims (including children) and organizing counselling for perpetrators. In Canada a Federal Initiative on Family Violence was launched in 1991, aiming to improve legal remedies and rehousing options. There have also been moves towards an international response to domestic violence. For example, the 4th United Nations Women's Conference, held in September 1995, called for a worldwide campaign against domestic violence.