Ming Dynasty

Ming Dynasty, Chinese imperial dynasty founded in 1368 by Zhu Yuanzhang (Chu Yuan-chang), a former Buddhist monk. He captured Beijing from the Mongol Yuan dynasty in 1371, although Yingtian (later Nanjing), then the largest city in the world with a population reaching one million by about 1400, remained the imperial capital until 1421. During that time a huge reconstruction of Beijing took place, after which it became the seat of the court, executive and military power. Nanjing remained the official secondary capital, responsible for supervising the state's fiscal affairs.

Initially Zhu had to re-establish order and Chinese rule. He purged tens of thousands of officials in 1380 and 1393, with over 40,000 losing their lives as a consequence, and he took personal control over the executive forms of government. Few of those who helped found the dynasty survived to old age. On the other hand, the Ming opened administration by increasing the importance of competitive examinations for access to the civil service.

Gradually the Ming extended control over lands to the north, west, and south-west, though allowing leaders of minorities to continue in office as their representatives. Where over the preceding four centuries the Chinese state had been forced to treat neighbouring states on equal terms, the early Ming re-established the system of tributary relations by which non-Chinese states of East Asia acknowledged the cultural and moral supremacy of China and sent periodic tribute to the Chinese court. Economically the country was in need of restoration. Agriculture had suffered from the ravages of war and natural disasters. The overall population had fallen from over 100 million to perhaps 70 million. Land had fallen into disrepair. Major efforts were made to increase cultivation, sometimes employing military units. Between 1383 and 1393 the farmed area increased 650 per cent to 51.6 million hectares (127.5 million acres), the highest figure until the 20th century, although it later declined by 20 per cent before stabilizing. For a while at least, taxation of the peasantry was kept light.

Trade expanded once more, especially in the south along the Yangzi River. The southern city of Suzhou (Soochow), a silk and cotton textile centre, became the largest city in the world in the 15th and 16th centuries. An increasing amount of Chinese products were exported, notably blue and multicoloured ceramic vases. Chinese naval activity reached its highest point before the 20th century. Between 1405 and 1433 a Muslim admiral, Zheng He (Cheng Ho), made seven major expeditions sponsored by the Emperor to develop diplomatic contacts. He reached South East Asia, India, the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, Mecca, and the east coast of Africa. However, the immense cost of these armadas (the first alone had 62 ships with almost 28,000 soldiers on board) aroused growing opposition, and after this seafaring was left to private traders. An increasing number of European visitors began to come to China during the latter part of the dynasty, especially Roman Catholic emissaries such as Matteo Ricci.

The Ming dynasty also promoted and presided over significant cultural development. At the beginning of the 15th century the Emperor ordered the compilation of a list of books regarded as the essential core of Chinese learning, which ran to 22,877 titles. Chinese literature in general developed enormously. Two of the most famous Chinese novels appeared at this time: Sanguozhi yanyi (The Romance of the Three Kingdoms) and Shuihuzhuan (The Water Margin), which still enjoy enormous popularity.

Nevertheless, despite its successes, the Ming dynasty suffered from repeated peasant uprisings, military conflicts with the Mongols and other nomad groups to the north, and Japanese piracy and military adventurism. All of this intensified the pressure to raise taxes. The problem was made worse by the practice of the later Ming emperors of entrusting increasing authority to court eunuchs, who were often accused of corruption. By the mid-16th century state revenue was regularly only half of expenditure.

By the early 17th century the dynasty was in serious difficulties. It then became embroiled in decades of conflict with the Jurchen (Manchu) tribes of the north. A peasant rebellion broke out in Shaanxi province, which captured an undefended Beijing in 1644, and the last emperor of the Ming dynasty hanged himself. The commander of the Ming army to the north invited the Jurchen to collaborate in driving the rebels from Beijing, but afterwards the Jurchen refused to withdraw and proclaimed a new Manchu or Qing dynasty.