Ireland

I

Introduction

Ireland, island in the North Atlantic Ocean, separated from Great Britain by St George's Channel on the south-east, the Irish Sea on the east, and the North Channel on the north-east. Politically, the island is divided into Northern Ireland, a constituent part of the United Kingdom, and the Republic of Ireland. The island is divided into four historical provinces—Connaught (Connacht), Leinster, Munster, and Ulster—and 32 administrative units called counties. The Republic of Ireland consists of Connaught, Leinster, and Munster provinces, totalling 23 counties, and 3 counties in the province of Ulster. Northern Ireland consists of 6 counties divided into 26 districts, the remainder of Ulster. The area of the island is 83,765 sq km (32,342 sq mi) of which the Republic of Ireland is 70,282 sq km (27,136 sq mi) in extent, and Northern Ireland 13,483 sq km (5,206 sq mi). The population of the island (1991) is 5,103,555, of which that of the Republic of Ireland is 3,525,719 and that of Northern Ireland is 1,577,836.

North to south, the maximum length of Ireland is 486 km (302 mi); its extreme width is 280 km (174 mi). Malin Head, at latitude 55°27' north, and Mizen Head, at latitude 51°27' north, are, respectively, the northernmost and southernmost points on the island; easternmost and westernmost points are demarcated by longitude 5°25' west and longitude 10°30' west.

II

The Land

The eastern coast of Ireland is comparatively regular and has few deep indentations; the western coast is fringed by drowned or submerged valleys, steep cliffs, and hundreds of small islands separated from the mainland by the powerful forces of the Atlantic. Topographically, the surface of the island may be described as basin-shaped. The chief physiographic features are a region of lowlands, occupying the central and east central sections, and a complex system of low mountain ranges, lying between the lowlands and the periphery of the island. Among the principal ranges are the Mourne Mountains in the north-east, rising 852 m (2,796 ft) above sea level; the mountains of Donegal in the north-west, containing Mount Errigal, 752 m (2,467 ft); the Sperrin Mountains in the north, containing Sawel Mountain, 683 m (2,240 ft); the Maumturk Mountains in the west, containing Mount Twelve Pins, 730 m (2,395 ft); the Caha Mountains in the south-west, containing Mount Knockboy, 707 m (2,321 ft); the Boggeragh Mountains in the south, rising to more than 640 m (2,100 ft); and the Wicklow Mountains in the east, rising more than 915 m (3,000 ft). Carrantuohill (1,041 m/3,414 ft above sea level), located in the south-western section of the island, is the highest point in Ireland. The central plain, or lowlands region, has maximum dimensions of about 160 km (100 mi) from east to west and about 80 km (50 mi) from north to south. Numerous bogs and lakes are found in the plain. The principal rivers of Ireland are the Erne and the Shannon, which are in reality chains of lakes joined by stretches of river. The northern portion of the central plain is drained by the Erne, and the centre of the plain is drained by the Shannon, which empties into the Atlantic Ocean through a wide, lengthy estuary. Nearly half of the Shannon, above the estuary, is made up of loughs Allen, Ree, and Derg. All the principal rivers of Ireland flow from the plain, and an interior canal system facilitates communications.

The climate of Ireland is typically insular. Because of the moderating influence of the prevailing warm, moist winds from the Atlantic Ocean, the mean winter temperature ranges from 4.4° to 7.2° C (40° to 45° F), approximately 14° C (25° F) higher than that of other places in the same latitude in the interior of Europe or on the eastern coast of North America. The oceanic influence is also very pronounced in summer, the mean summer temperature of Ireland, 15° to 16.7° C (59° to 62° F), being approximately 4° C (7° F) lower than that of other places in the same latitudes. The rainfall averages 1,016 mm (40 in) a year.

Most of the flora of Ireland comes via Britain from the western European mainland. Sedges, rushes, ferns, and grass are the principal flora. The Irish fauna does not differ markedly from that of Britain or France. The great Irish deer and the great auk, or garefowl, were exterminated in prehistoric times; and, subsequently, the island has lost its bear, wolf, wildcat, beaver, and native cattle. Remaining are the indigenous small rodents and birds of the woods, fields, and shoreline. The only reptile is the common lizard.

III

History

This section covers the history of Ireland from earliest times to the partition of the island under the Government of Ireland Act in 1920. For the subsequent history, see Ireland, Republic of: History; Northern Ireland: History. See also Celtic Languages; Gaelic Literature; Church of Ireland; Irish Literature; Irish Nationalism.

A

Early Ireland

According to early legends, Ireland was first inhabited by successive waves of invaders, the most important of which were the Nemedians, Fomorians, Fir Bolg, and Tuatha Dé Danann. These peoples are said to have been eventually subdued by Milesians (Gaels). The legends may have historical resonance in the arrival of Celts from continental Europe in the second half of the first millennium bc. Ireland is mentioned under the name of Ierne in a Greek poem of the 5th century bc and by the names of Hibernia and Juverna by various classical writers. Little, however, is known with certainty of its inhabitants before the 4th century ad (Ireland was never part of the Roman Empire). At that time Irish peoples called the Scoti harried the Roman province of Britain. These expeditions were continued and extended to the coast of Gaul until the time of the Loigare, or King MacNeill (reigned 428-463), during whose reign St Patrick attempted to convert the natives. Although Christianity had been previously introduced in some parts of Ireland, Patrick encountered great obstacles, and the new faith was not fully established in the island until a century after his death in about 461.

Medieval Ireland was a carefully stratified society, in which each individual had a social value measured in terms of honour. Kings, clerics, and poets had the greatest honour, with special status being given to craftsmen, musicians, and other skilled workers. From early times each minor kingdom, or tuath, had its own king; these kings were subject to the ardrí, or high king, who usually resided at Tara, a hill in present-day County Meath. The laws were dispensed by professional jurists called brehons, who were endowed with lands and who were allowed important privileges.

In the 6th century extensive monasteries were founded in Ireland, in which religion and learning were zealously cultivated during the early Middle Ages of Europe. From these establishments numerous missionaries, such as saints Columba, Columban, and Brendan, went forth during the succeeding centuries, while many students of distinction from Britain and the Continent visited Ireland to further their education. Seeking solitude, Irish hermits were also the first known visitors to the Faroe Islands, Iceland, and Greenland. Irish monasteries were responsible for producing many great works of art, including high crosses; fine metalwork, such as the Tara Brooch and Ardagh Chalice; and illuminated manuscripts, such as the Book of Kells and the Book of Durrow.

Irish civilization was heavily impacted by the incursions of the Scandinavians, which began towards the close of the 8th century and continued for more than two centuries. From 795 the Vikings began raiding Irish monasteries for plunder and slaves. In the 840s they established raiding camps at Dublin, Cork, and elsewhere, which developed into permanent settlements and, later, trading centres. After a number of reverses at the hands of Gaelic chiefs, in the early 10th century a new wave of Scandinavians arrived from northern France, re-establishing old settlements and founding Limerick and Wexford. The Vikings played a central role in Irish political and economic life until their signal overthrow at the Battle of Clontarf, near Dublin, in 1014, by the Irish king Brian Boru.