Julius Caesar

IV

Civil War

In 52 bc, with Crassus out of the way, Pompey was made sole consul. This office, combined with his other powers, put him in a formidable position. Jealous of his younger rival, he determined to break Caesar's power, an objective that could not be achieved without first depriving him of his command in Gaul. In order to protect himself, Caesar suggested that he and Pompey both lay down their commands simultaneously, but this was rejected; goaded by Pompey, the Senate summarily called upon Caesar to resign his command and disband his army, or else be considered a public enemy. The tribunes, who were Caesar's agents, vetoed this motion, but they were driven out of the Senate chamber. The Senate then entrusted Pompey with providing for the safety of the state. His forces far outnumbered Caesar's, but they were scattered throughout the provinces, and his troops in Italy were not prepared for war. Early in 49 bc Caesar crossed the Rubicon, a small stream separating his province of Cisalpine Gaul from Italy, and moved swiftly southward. Pompey fled to Brundisium and from there to Greece. Within three months Caesar controlled all Italy; his forces then took Spain and the key port of Massilia (modern Marseille, France).

In Rome Caesar became dictator until elected consul for 48 bc. At the beginning of that year he landed in Greece and destroyed Pompey's forces at Pharsalus. Pompey escaped to Egypt, where he was assassinated. When Caesar arrived there, he installed Cleopatra, daughter of the late King Ptolemy XI, as queen. In 47 bc he subdued Asia Minor—when he is supposed to have said “Veni, vidi, vici” (“I came, I saw, I conquered”)—and returned to Rome as dictator. By 48 bc all Optimate forces had been defeated and the Mediterranean world pacified.

V

Dictatorship and Assassination

The basis of Caesar's power was his position as “perpetual” dictator. According to the traditional Republican constitution, this office could only be held for six months during a dire emergency. Even before Caesar, however, that rule had been broken. Sulla had reigned as dictator for several years, and Caesar followed this precedent. He was also made consul for ten years in 45 bc and received the sanctity of tribunes, making it illegal to harm him. In addition he obtained honours that increased his prestige. He wore the robe, crown, and sceptre of a triumphant general and used the title imperator. Furthermore, as Pontifex Maximus, he was head of the state religion. Above all, however, he was in total command of the armies, and this remained the main source of his power.

Caesar instituted a wide-ranging programme of reform. In the provinces he eliminated the highly corrupt tax system, sponsored the establishment of colonies of veterans, and extended Roman citizenship. At home he reorganized the courts and increased the number of senators. His reform of the calendar gave Rome a rational means of recording time.

A number of senatorial families, however, felt that Caesar threatened their position, and his honours and powers made them fear that he wanted to be rex (king), a title they, as Republicans, hated. In 44 bc, a group of senators, including Gaius Cassius and Marcus Junius Brutus, plotted his assassination. On the Ides (15th) of March 44 bc, when Caesar entered the Senate house, the group killed him.

VI

Personal Life

After Caesar's first wife, Cornelia, died in 68 bc, he married Pompeia, a granddaughter of Sulla. When the mysteries of the Bona Dea, over which she presided, were violated, she was maligned by gossips, and Caesar divorced her, telling the Senate that any wife of his must remain above suspicion. His next marriage (59 bc) was to Calpurnia and was politically motivated. Since Caesar had no male heirs, he stipulated in his will that his great nephew, Octavius, become his successor. It was Octavius who became Rome's first emperor under the name of Augustus.

Caesar was a gifted writer, with a clear and simple style. His Commentaries, in which he described Gaul and his Gallic campaigns, is a major source of information about the early Celtic and Germanic tribes.

VII

Achievements

Scholarly opinion of Caesar's achievements is divided. Some regard him as an unscrupulous tyrant, with an insatiable lust for power, and blame him for the demise of the Roman Republic. Others, admitting that he could be ruthless, insist that the Republic had already been destroyed. They maintain that to save the Roman world from chaos a new type of government had to be created. In fact, Caesar's reforms brought stability to the Mediterranean world. He was also a superb general, who inspired loyalty in his soldiers. As one of the most striking figures in the ancient world he became the subject of many literary and biographical works, including the play Julius Caesar (1599) by the English dramatist William Shakespeare.