Julius Caesar

I

Introduction

Julius Caesar (100-44 bc), Roman general and statesman, who laid the foundations of the Roman imperial system.

II

Early Life

He was born Gaius Julius Caesar in Rome on July 12 or 13, 100 bc. He belonged to the prestigious Julian clan, yet from early childhood he knew controversy. His uncle by marriage was Gaius Marius, leader of the Populares. This party supported agrarian reform and was opposed by the reactionary Optimates, a senatorial faction. In his last year as consul (chief magistrate), Marius exacted a terrifying toll on the Optimates. At the same time he had the young Caesar appointed flamen dialis, one of an archaic priesthood with no power. This identified him with his uncle's extremist politics, and his marriage in 84 bc to Cornelia, the daughter of Marius's associate, Cinna, further confirmed him as a radical. When Lucius Cornelius Sulla, leader of the Optimates, was made dictator in 82 bc, he issued a list of opponents to be executed. Although Caesar was not harmed, he was ordered by Sulla to divorce Cornelia. Refusing that order, he found it prudent to leave Rome. He did not return to the city until 78 bc, following Sulla's resignation.

By then, Caesar was 22 years old. Unable to gain office, he left Rome again and went to Rhodes, where he studied rhetoric; he returned to Rome in 73 bc, a very persuasive speaker. The year before, while still in Rhodes, he had been elected to the pontificate, an important college of Roman priests.

III

Triumvirate

In 71 bc Pompey the Great, who had earned his epithet in service under Sulla, returned to Rome, having defeated Quintus Sertorius, the rebellious Populares general, in Spain. In the same year Marcus Licinius Crassus, a rich patrician, suppressed the slave revolt led by Spartacus in Italy. Both Pompey and Crassus obtained the consulship for 70 bc. Pompey, who by this time had changed sides, was technically ineligible, but with Caesar's help had won the office. In 69 bc, Caesar was elected quaestor (magistrate) and in 65 bc curule aedile, in which office he gained great popularity for his lavish gladiatorial games. To pay for these, he borrowed money from Crassus. This united the two men, who also found common cause with Pompey. When Caesar returned to Rome in 60 bc after a year as governor of Spain, he joined forces with Crassus and Pompey to form the First Triumvirate; to cement their relationship further, Pompey married Caesar's daughter, Julia. With the support of this alliance, Caesar was elected consul for 59 bc despite Optimate hostility, and in 58 bc he was appointed governor of Roman Gaul. For the next seven years he led the campaigns known as the Gallic Wars at the end of which Roman rule was established over central and northern Europe west of the River Rhine.

A

Power Play

While Caesar was in Gaul, his agents attempted to dominate politics in Rome. This, however, threatened Pompey's position, and it became necessary for the triumvirs to arrange a meeting at Luca in 56 bc, which resulted in a temporary reconciliation. It was decided that Caesar would continue in Gaul for another five years, while Pompey and Crassus would both be consuls for 55 bc; after that date, the triumvirs would have proconsular control of their respective provinces. Caesar then left to put down a revolt in Gaul and to lead an expedition to Britain. Crassus, ever eager for military glory, went to his post in Syria. After entering into war with Parthia, he was defeated and killed at Carrhae in 53 bc. This removed the last buffer between Caesar and Pompey; their family ties had been broken by the death of Julia in 54 bc.