Denmark

B

The Kalmar Union and the Reformation

In 1380 Denmark and Norway were joined in a union under one king, Olaf III, a grandson of Waldemar IV, and with Norway came Iceland and the Faroe Islands. After Olaf’s death in 1387, his mother, Margaret I, reigned in his stead. In 1389 she obtained the crown of Sweden and began the struggle to unite the three realms, a struggle which was completed successfully in 1397, with the formation of the Union of Kalmar. Denmark was the dominant power, but Swedish aristocrats strove repeatedly—and with some success—for Sweden’s autonomy within the union. The Kalmar Union lasted until 1523, when Sweden won its independence in a revolt against the tyrannical Christian II led by Gustav Vasa, who was elected King of Sweden as Gustav I in that year.

Also in 1523 Christian II was driven from the Danish throne. There followed a period of unrest, as Lübeck, the strongest Hanseatic city, interfered in Danish politics. With help from Sweden’s king, Lübeck’s interference was ended and Christian III consolidated his power as King of Denmark. During his reign (1534-1559) the Reformation triumphed in Denmark, and the Lutheran Church was established as the state Church. At this time the Danish kings began to treat Norway as a province rather than as a separate kingdom. Commercial and political rivalry with Sweden for domination of the Baltic Sea resulted in the indecisive Nordic Seven Years’ War (1563-1570) and the War of Kalmar (1611-1613) between Sweden and Denmark.

The intervention in the 1620s of Christian IV in the religious struggle in Germany on behalf of the Protestant cause led to Danish participation in the Thirty Years’ War. Continued rivalry with Sweden for primacy in the north led to the Swedish Wars of 1643-1645 and 1657-1660, in which Denmark was badly defeated and lost several of its Baltic islands and all of its territory on the Scandinavian peninsula except Norway.

C

Absolute Monarchy and the Nobility’s Decline

The economic repercussions of these defeats had far-reaching consequences for Denmark. The growing commercial class, hard hit by the loss of foreign markets and trade, joined with the monarchy to curtail the power and privileges of the nobility. In 1660, capitalizing on the nobility’s unpopularity after its poor military performance in the Swedish Wars, Frederick III carried out a coup d’état against the aristocratic Council of the Realm. The monarchy, which until then had been largely dependent for its political power on the aristocracy, was made hereditary; in 1661 it became absolute. The tax-exemption privileges of the nobility were ended, and nobles were replaced by commoners in Denmark’s administration. Important administrative reforms were also introduced.

In the 18th century Denmark began the colonization of Greenland, which had come under Danish rule in 1380; Danish trade in East Asia expanded; and trading companies were established in the West Indies, where Denmark acquired several islands. In 1788 constraints on the liberties of the peasants were abolished, and land redistribution was initiated, breaking up the great estates of the nobility. In the following decades an agricultural enclosure movement greatly enhanced the production of foodstuffs; by 1813, 60 per cent of the Danish peasants had become landowners.

D

Napoleonic Wars

During the Napoleonic Wars, efforts by England to blockade the European continent led to naval clashes with Denmark. Copenhagen was twice bombarded by the British fleet, first in 1801 and again in 1807, and the Danish navy was destroyed. As a result, Denmark was largely cut off from Norway, and the Danish monarch reluctantly sided with Napoleon. By the Peace of Kiel (1814) Denmark ceded Helgoland to the British and Norway to Sweden; in return, Denmark was given Swedish Pomerania, which it later exchanged for Lauenburg, previously held by Prussia. Economically, the Napoleonic Wars were disastrous for Denmark, causing the loss of important markets overseas, inflation at home and ultimately national bankruptcy. Economic stability was not re-established until after the central bank was founded in 1818. Even then low international grain prices kept the agricultural sector in crisis until 1828.

E

Constitutional Monarchy

Denmark’s economic problems helped underpin the growing demand for constitutional government which led to the proclamation of the constitution of 1849. Denmark became a constitutional monarchy, civil liberties were guaranteed and a bicameral legislature, which was to share legislative power with the Crown, was established. German nationalism in Schleswig and Holstein (see Schleswig-Holstein), both hereditary duchies held by the kings of Denmark, presented the Danes with serious problems in the wake of the Revolutions of 1848. The two duchies had long been objects of dispute between the Danish and German monarchies. With diplomatic aid from Russia, Denmark had prevailed in a first test of strength in mid-century, but in 1864 Prussia and Austria went to war with the Danes to prevent the incorporation of Schleswig into Denmark’s territory and constitutional structure. The Danes were defeated and lost possession of the two duchies and of other territory.

In 1866 the Danish constitution was revised, making the upper chamber, dominated by the great landowners (Landsting), more powerful than the lower house (Folketing). Politics took a more conservative turn, but during the last decades of the 19th century, commerce, industry, and finance flourished; dairy farming and the cooperative movement were much expanded; and the working class grew in numbers. After 1880 the newly organized Social Democratic Party played a major role in the Danish labour movement and in the struggle for a democratic constitution. The principle of parliamentary government was recognized in 1901, ending a long political deadlock between the Crown and the Landsting on one side and the Folketing, on the other.

F

Modern Denmark

Denmark was neutral during World War I. In 1917 Denmark sold the Virgin Islands, in the West Indies, to the United States. Constitutional reforms enacted in 1915 established many of the basic features of the present governmental system. Universal suffrage went into effect in 1918. In the same year Denmark recognized the independence of Iceland, but continued to control the foreign policy of the new state, while the Danish king remained Iceland’s head of state. In 1920 North Schleswig was incorporated into Denmark as a result of a plebiscite carried out in accordance with the terms of the Treaty of Versailles; the southern part of Schleswig voted to remain in Germany.