Psychoanalysis

B

Alfred Adler

Also a pupil of Freud, Alfred Adler differed from Freud and Jung by stressing that the motivating force in human life is a sense of inferiority. The developing child becomes aware of its inferiority and struggles to overcome it. Inferiority is said to be intolerable, with individuals developing compensatory mechanisms to deal with feelings—particularly towards work, friends, and loved ones. These compensatory mechanisms may get out of hand, resulting in self-centred neurotic attitudes, overcompensations, and a retreat from the real world and its problems. Avoiding feelings of inferiority in these relationships leads the individual to adopt a goal in life that is often not realistic and is frequently expressed as an unreasoning will to power and dominance, leading to every type of antisocial behaviour from bullying and boasting to political tyranny. Adler believed that analysis could foster a sane and rational “community feeling” that is constructive rather than destructive.

C

Otto Rank

Another student of Freud, Otto Rank attributed all neurotic disturbance to the trauma of birth. He outlined a progression from complete dependence on mother and family, to a physical independence, coupled with an intellectual dependence on society. In turn, the individual achieves complete intellectual and psychological emancipation. He emphasized the importance of “will”, defined as “a positive guiding organization and integration of self, which utilizes creatively as well as inhibits and controls the instinctive drives”.

IX

Other Psychoanalytic Schools

A

Erich Fromm

Fromm emphasized the concept that society and the individual are not separate and opposing forces; that the nature of society is determined by its historical background; and that the needs and desires of individuals are formed largely by their societies. He believed that the fundamental purpose of psychoanalysis and psychology is not to resolve conflicts between fixed and unchanging instinctive drives in the individual and the fixed demands of law and society, but rather to bring about harmony and understanding in the relationship between the individual and society.

B

Karen Horney

Horney defined two kinds of neuroses: situation neuroses and character neuroses. The former arise from the anxiety that results from a single conflict, such as being faced with a difficult decision, and are unlikely to be deep-rooted or severe. The latter, however, are characterized by a basic anxiety and hostility resulting from a lack of love and affection in childhood and are more severe and deep-rooted.

C

Harry Stack Sullivan

Harry Stack Sullivan believed that all development can be described exclusively in terms of relationships with others. Character types as well as neurotic symptoms are explained as results of the struggle against anxiety arising from the individual’s relationship with others and act as a security system maintained for the purpose of allaying anxiety.