Turkey (country)

F

Culture

A transition from Islamic artistic traditions under the Ottoman Empire (see Islamic Art and Architecture) to a more secular, Western orientation has gradually taken place in Turkey. Some Turkish painters strive to find their own art forms free from Western influence. Sculpture is less well developed, and public monuments are usually heroic representations of Atatürk and events from the war of independence. Folk music is a source of inspiration for longer symphonic works (see Islamic Music).

The earliest Turkish poetry survives in the epic poetry of the Kirghiz; their epic, the Manas, has been passed down by word of mouth through the ages. Early mystical poetry written by Yunus Emre and others in the 14th century gave way at court to learned poetry, called Divan poetry. More popular poetry was sung by minstrels, a tradition that continues to the present day. Many critics regard Kemal Tahir as the greatest modern Turkish novelist. Among authors translated into English is Yaşar Kemal, author of Memed, My Hawk (1955; translated 1961), a prizewinning novel of a modern Robin Hood, which won the author his international reputation; Anatolian Tales (1968); and Seagull (1981), a story that blends myth with realistic depiction of provincial life in modern Turkey. Another Turkish poet with an international reputation is Nazim Hikmet, a Marxist, who wrote his poems in forceful, colloquial Turkish, introducing free verse. Orhan Pamuk is Turkey’s most highly regarded current novelist; he won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2006.

Turkey maintains state operas in İstanbul and Ankara, the Academy of Fine Arts in İstanbul, three music conservatories, a national folk dance troupe, and other cultural institutions. Christian churches converted to mosques, and mosques built by the famous Turkish architect Sinan, are in İstanbul, Edirne, Bursa, and other cities. The Sultan’s Palace (Topkapi Sarayi) is now a museum housing the imperial treasures and relics of the Prophet Muhammad. Ankara’s Museum of Anatolian Civilizations has outstanding Hittite, Phrygian, and other exhibits. Among the largest of Turkey’s many libraries are the National Library, in Ankara, and the Beyazit State Library, in İstanbul.

IV

Economy

In 2004, according to World Bank estimates, Turkey’s GNP was US$269 billion, equivalent to US$4,750 per capita.

Turkey has become increasingly integrated into the West European economic scene. The economy has improved significantly since the 1994 crisis of triple-digit inflation, but the government has a difficult task in balancing the need for new austerity measures and tough structural reforms with increased demand for continued growth. Some industries are under pressure from EU competition, with the possibility that much-needed revenues will decline with the elimination of import tariffs and surcharges.

Prices rose by 150 per cent between 1994 and 1995, while average wage increases lagged 30 per cent behind. Farming still engages almost half the labour force, while unemployment in the cities stood at 12 per cent in 1995.

The annual gross domestic product (GDP) of Turkey in 2005 was US$363 billion. About 23.7 per cent of GDP was contributed by industry, 11.9 per cent by agriculture, and 64.5 per cent by government and private services in 2005.

A

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing

Since 1950 agricultural output in Turkey has increased through the use of more machinery and fertilizer and better plant varieties, but productivity remains comparatively low, as many farmers still use inefficient methods and most farms are extremely small. The diversity of climates in Turkey allows many speciality crops to be grown, such as tea.

In 2005, the annual production of Turkey’s principal crops included 21 million tonnes of wheat, 14 million tonnes of sugar beet, 9 million tonnes of barley, 34.6 million tonnes of cereals, 4.17 million tonnes of potatoes, 4 million tonnes of grapes, 25.4 million tonnes of vegetables and melons, and 3.50 million tonnes of corn. Other important crops include onions, aubergines, nuts, cabbage, rye, cotton, tobacco, tomatoes, apples, olives, and citrus fruit. Livestock on farms (2005) include some 25.2 million sheep, 10.1 million cattle, 6.61 million goats, 462,000 donkeys, 212,414 buffalo, 255,000 horses, 303 million poultry.

Although 13.2 per cent of Turkey’s area is classified as forested, the timber industry is relatively unimportant, with no more than one third of the forests having commercial value. In 2005 roundwood production was about 16.2 million cu m (572 million cu ft) and sawnwood production was about 6.44 million cu m (228 million cu ft).

Total fish catch in 2004 was 644,492 tonnes; most of the catch comes from the Mediterranean and Black seas. Anchovies generally account for more than half the catch. Mackerel, sardines, mullet, and carp are also caught.

B

Mining

Turkey maintains an important place in world mineral production. The country’s principal mineral products include lignite, coal, crude oil, chromite, bauxite, iron ore, manganese, boron, antimony, lead, zinc, copper, and sulphur. In 2003 coal production was 48.2 million tonnes, and crude oil was 16.5 million barrels. A special mineral produced is meerschaum, which is used to make tobacco pipes.

C

Manufacturing

Leading manufactured products in the early 1990s in Turkey included processed food, textiles, iron and steel, refined oil, chemicals, cement, vehicles, paper, and cigarettes. İstanbul, İzmir, and Bursa were important manufacturing centres.