Turkey (country)

C

Climate

The Mediterranean and Aegean shores of Turkey experience long, hot summers and mild, rainy winters. İstanbul has an average January temperature of 5° C (41° F) and an average July temperature of 23° C (73° F). Average annual precipitation totals 820 mm (32 in). Olives, citrus fruit, figs, grapes, cotton, and early spring vegetables are raised. Scattered forests alternate with low herbaceous growth.

The central Anatolian Plateau has a continental climate with hot summers and colder winters than those along the shore. Ankara has an average January temperature of 0° C (32° F) and an average July temperature of 23° C (73° F). Average annual precipitation totals 350 mm (14 in). Along the Mediterranean and Aegean coasts, nearly half the yearly precipitation, which is about 710 mm (28 in) at İzmir, falls in December and January. The plateau receives only about half as much precipitation, but it is more evenly distributed over the course of the year. The eastern highlands experience even longer and colder winters. South-eastern Anatolia records the hottest summer temperatures in Turkey (averaging more than 30° C/86° F in July and August); grain-farming is dominant, with grazing in its drier portions.

D

Plants and Animals

Grasslands and grain fields are abundant on the plateau, with sparse forests restricted to higher slopes. Pastoralism and grazing prevail in the eastern highlands. Some sparse forests are found, and alpine vegetation is common at higher elevations. Humid deciduous forests as well as a thick brush cover are found along the Black Sea. Higher elevations have forests similar to those in the eastern highlands.

Only wild boar, which are seldom hunted or killed by Muslims (the great majority of the population), remain abundant in the forests. Wolf, fox, wildcat, hyena, jackal, deer, bear, marten, and mountain goat inhabit more remote areas. The camel, water buffalo, and Angora goat have been domesticated. In addition to numerous local species of birds, including the wild goose, partridge, and quail, migrations of birds of prey—lesser spotted eagles, buzzards, hawks, kestrels, and falcons—pass down the Bosporus. Trout are abundant in the mountain streams, and bonito, mackerel, and bluefish are plentiful in the Turkish Straits. Anchovies are caught in the Black Sea.

E

Natural Resources

In addition to good supplies of coal and iron ore, Turkey has a number of small but important mineral deposits, such as chrome ore near Guleman and Fethiye, high-grade magnetite ore at Divriği, and lead and zinc in scattered areas. Boron, copper, and silver are also mined, and oil occurs in relatively small quantities in the south-east.

F

Environmental Concerns

About 11 per cent (1995) of the land is forested, and agricultural land makes up about 38 per cent (1997) of the country. Turkey’s protected area network consists of 21 national parks and 36 national forests as well as numerous nature reserves, special protection areas, and other designated sites totalling about 1.4 per cent (1997) of the land. Protected areas are jeopardized, however, by poor legal protection. Recreation and game breeding and hunting areas are relatively extensive. The expansion and modernization of agriculture represents a major environmental threat in Turkey. Pesticides and fertilizers frequently pollute waterways, and natural areas—especially wetlands—are used for cultivation and grazing ground. Other problems include extensive coastal development, the hunting of threatened and endangered species, and pressure on protected sites from increased tourism.

Growth in Turkey's industrial sector has given rise to air pollution in a number of cities, and industrial effluents are adding to river contamination. Turkey has ratified international environmental agreements on air pollution, hazardous wastes, nuclear test ban, ozone layer, ship pollution, wetlands, and whaling. Two natural areas have been declared World Heritage Sites. Regionally, Turkey is active in the conservation of the Mediterranean and Black Sea through participation in the Mediterranean Action Plan. In addition, three specially protected areas have been recognized under the Barcelona Convention. Under the Council of Europe (CE) protocol, three sites in Turkey have been designated as biogenetic reserves, and one site has been awarded the distinguished European Diploma. The country has a transborder park, shared with Greece.

III

Population

The territory of Turkey has been home to ethnically and culturally distinct groups from the ancient Hittites, Phrygians, and Assyrians to Greeks, Persians, Romans, and Arabs (see Asia Minor). The nomadic forebears of the modern Turks came out of Central Asia in the 11th century ad, conquered Arab and Byzantine empires, and set themselves up as rulers. Their arrival placed the distinctive stamp of Turkish language and culture on the population they found there, and it was the instrument by which Islam replaced Christianity in this territory. More than 10 per cent of the population in the late 1980s, however, belonged to various ethnic groups that continue to maintain their individual identity, particularly the Greeks, Kurds, Arabs, Armenians, and Jews.