Marriage

I

Introduction

Marriage, social institution (usually legally ratified) uniting a man and a woman (or, in certain countries, people of the same sex) in special forms of mutual dependence, often for the purpose of founding and maintaining a family. In view of the necessity for children to undergo a long period of development before attaining maturity, the care of children during their years of relative helplessness appears to have been the chief incentive for the evolution of the family structure. Marriage as a contract between a man and a woman has existed since ancient times. As a social practice, entered into through a public act, it reflects the purposes, character, and customs of the society in which it is found.

II

Customs

Although marriage customs vary greatly from one culture to another, the importance of the institution is universally acknowledged. In some societies, community interest in the children, in the bonds between families, and in the ownership of property established by a marriage are such that special devices and customs are created to protect these values. Infant betrothal or marriage, prevalent in places such as Melanesia, is a result of concern for family, caste, and property alliances. Levirate, the custom by which a man might marry the wife of his deceased brother, was practised chiefly by the ancient Hebrews, and was designed to continue a family connection that had already been established. Sororate, a custom still practised in some parts of the world, permits a man to marry one or more of his wife's sisters, usually if she has died or cannot have children. Monogamy, the union of two people, is thought to be the prototype of human marriage and its most widely accepted form, predominating also in societies in which other forms of marriage are accepted. All other forms of marriage are generally classed under polygamy, which includes both polygyny, in which one man has several wives, and polyandry, in which one woman has several husbands.

Under Islamic laws, one man may legally have as many as four wives, all of whom are entitled to equal treatment. Polygyny was also practised briefly in the United States during the 19th century by the Mormons in Utah. The incidence of polyandry is rare and is limited to Central Asia, southern India, and Sri Lanka. Frequently polygyny or polyandry involves a man or woman marrying two or more siblings. Polygyny sometimes results in the maintenance of separate households for each wife, although more frequently the shared-household system is employed, as with Muslims and among many Native American tribes before the colonization of North America.

III

Ritual

In most societies, marriage is established through a contractual procedure, generally with some sort of religious sanction. In Western societies the contract of marriage is often regarded as a religious sacrament, and it is indissoluble only in the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church. Most marriages are preceded by a betrothal period, during which various rituals, such as exchanges of gifts and visits, lead to the final wedding ceremony and make the claims of the partners public. In societies where arranged marriages still predominate, families may negotiate a dowry, future living arrangements, and other important matters before marriage can be arranged. Most wedding ceremonies involve rituals and symbolism that reflect the desire for fertility, such as the sprinkling of the bridal couple with rice, the bride's adornment with orange blossom, and the circling of the sacred fire, which is part of the marriage ritual in Hinduism, for example. The ancient Hindu ceremony of Svayamvaram (Sanskrit, “I am wish”), practised especially by royalty, involved the woman choosing her future husband from assembled eligible men by garlanding him.

Hindus, Buddhists, and many other communities consult astrologers before and after marriages are arranged to choose an auspicious date and time. In some societies fear of hostile spirits leads bridal couples to wear disguises at their weddings or sometimes even to send substitutes to the ceremony. In some countries, for instance Ethiopia, it was long customary to place an armed guard by the bridal couple during the wedding ceremony to protect them from demons.

The breaking of family or community ties implicit in most marriages is often expressed through gifts made to the family of the bride, as among many Native American, African, and Melanesian societies. The new bonds between the married couple are frequently represented by an exchange of rings and/or the joining of hands. Finally, the interest of the community is expressed in many ways, through feasting and dancing, the presence of witnesses, and the official sealing of marriage documents. Marriage can be seen as a rite of passage since it usually is accompanied by certain social and religious rituals that underline its importance not just to the couple concerned, but also to their families and wider society.

IV

Social Regulation

The taboos and restrictions imposed on marriage throughout history have been many and complex. Endogamy, for example, limits marriage to partners who are members of the same society or the same section of a society, to adherents of the same religion, or to members of the same social class. Fear of incest is a universal restriction to the freedom of marriage, although definitions of incest have varied greatly throughout history. In most cases, the prohibition extends to mother and son, father and daughter, and all offspring of the same parents. Among certain groups, however, such as ancient Egyptian royalty, marriages between brothers and sisters were in fact decreed by the prevailing religion.

In many societies, taboos are broadened to include marriages between uncles and nieces, aunts and nephews, first cousins, and, occasionally, second cousins. Exogamy, or marriage outside a specific group, can involve the separation of a society into two groups, within which intermarriage is not allowed. Practised by Native Americans and some other groups, it is believed to be an extension of taboos against incest to include much larger groups of people who may be related to one another.

The traditional importance of marriage can be observed in the customs surrounding widows and widowers, such as waiting times prescribed before remarriage, the wearing of mourning clothes, and the performance of ceremonial duties owed to the dead. The most extreme custom, abolished by law in India in 1829, was that of suttee, in which a widow was expected to sacrifice herself on her husband's funeral pyre.