Lacquer Work

I

Introduction

Lacquer Work, the process of applying a varnish to the surface of a material, most commonly wood, as both a decorative and protective finish. Lacquer, a type of varnish made from the sap of the Asian lac tree, possesses two notable characteristics: it creates a surface impervious to high temperatures and moisture, it readily blends with pigments or other embellishments, and is resistant to termites and other wood-boring pests.

European substitutes for lacquer, such as vernis Martin, were developed in the 18th century, but do not have the lustre of true lacquer. Synthetic modern lacquers, derived from cellulose, are usually sprayed over decoration and merely give a high-gloss finish.

Lacquer work is believed to have originated in China and then spread to Japan. It is a painstaking technique in which the lacquer is applied in thin coats, sometimes as many as 100. Each coat is dried and polished before the next is applied. Pigment may be mixed with the lacquer to create a coloured surface, or designs may be painted and gilded on to the clear or opaque surface, then lacquered again. Other methods of decoration included carving the surface with a knife or encrusting it with a shell, mother-of-pearl, coral or metal. Coromandel lacquer, named after the Coromandel coast of India through which it passed on its way to European markets, is made only in China. An intaglio design is cut into several layers of lacquer down to the wooden base, and the spaces are then filled with brilliantly coloured lacquers or ivory. Coromandel panels were often used in screens and cabinets.

II

Chinese Lacquer Work

The earliest examples of Chinese lacquer work are archaeological fragments from the Shang dynasty (c. 1766-c. 1027 bc). Pottery with lacquered paint has been discovered at sites of Western Zhou (c. 1027-770 bc) settlement. In the succeeding Eastern Zhou (770-256 bc) and Warring States Periods (403-221 bc), however, lacquer became an important art form. The Chu people, who controlled an area encompassing much of central and southern China in the Warring States epoch, adorned household goods such as bowls and cosmetic boxes with intricate lacquer designs of animals and human figures. Preserved for centuries in tombs, these are some of the earliest known examples of Chinese painting.

In the Han Period (206 bc- ad 220), decoration of surfaces with brightly coloured lacquered pigments attained its greatest popularity. Wooden utensils, as well as furniture and coffins, were lavishly decorated with abstract motifs and fanciful creatures such as dragons. Silver inlays were also very popular during this period, and several examples have been found on comb- and pin-boxes. Incised decoration also appears during the Han dynasty. This involved marking out a design with a sharply pointed instrument, then filling the lines with contrasting colours.

During the Tang dynasty (618-906), lacquer was commonly used to protect and colour wooden statues of Buddhist deities. In addition, an important new decorative element—designs carved on a lacquered surface—first appeared in Tang lacquer work. This technique was rarely practised in the succeeding Song dynasty (960-1279), when simpler lacquer painting in black or red was preferred. More ornate decoration reappeared, however, during the Yuan period (1279-1368). Surface carving reached new heights of intricacy, and the use of inlay, such as mother-of-pearl, became widespread. It was used on all sorts of household and personal items, as well as beds, screens and other types of furniture.

Carved red lacquer was favoured in the early years of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644); by the 16th and 17th centuries, however, a rich variety of colours was introduced, including green and yellow. Furniture and household objects, such as bowls and trays, continued to be the most popular forms of lacquer work. Ornate surfaces characterize Qing (1644-1912) lacquers, when, in addition to carving, semi-precious stones and gilding were added to the object. Large screens or panels, often depicting a landscape with figures, were especially popular for export; many were shipped to Europe, as well as to Japan and India. In modern-day China, highly skilled lacquer workers continue to employ a wide variety of traditional techniques.

III

Japanese Lacquer Work

The earliest lacquer work in Japan dates from the Nara Period (ad 710-784) and shows the strong influence of Chinese art and culture. Many eighth-century Buddhist statues, with dry lacquer (kaushitsu) surfaces have survived, undoubtedly a practice imported from Tang China. The most notable development in the Heian Period (794-1184) was maki-e (sprinkled picture), a specifically Japanese technique. It involved drawing the design in lacquer on a sheet of fibrous paper, then pressing it face down on to a lacquer surface. The paper was removed and gold and silver powders were sprinkled over the wet lacquer. In the subsequent Kamakura Era (1185-1333), carved lacquer work gained popularity among the Japanese. In the Momoyama Period (1574-1603) Japanese lacquer work developed its distinctive character. Black lacquer surfaces decorated with floral motifs in gold, most often on near-miniature objects, are the most famous examples of Momoyama workshops.

The two hallmarks of Momoyama lacquer work—use of gold leaf and paint on a monochromed (usually black) lacquer surface and delight in small, jewel-like designs—reached their apogee in the Tokugawa Period (1603-1867), most notably on inro, small rectangular boxes for snuff or cosmetics, hung from a sash round the waist.

The various objects used in the traditional tea ceremony—cups, teapots, water containers—were also favoured forms of Japanese lacquer work. Tea utensils and household objects are similarly decorated in present-day Japan. Indeed the shapes and designs on Japanese lacquerware have remained very consistent over the centuries.

IV

Western Lacquer Work

Lacquer work first became known in Europe during the Renaissance, but it was not until the 17th century that a flourishing trade developed in lacquered furniture and other objects from the Orient. The expense of obtaining the genuine article, however, led to European attempts at imitation, and the home-grown technique became known as Japanning. This involved covering wood with a very thin layer of gesso (plaster mixed with glue) to form a hard surface, then a layer of black or coloured varnish composed of shellac dissolved in spirit was brushed over the top. Raised, painted or engraved decoration was then applied, often in pseudo-Oriental sytle. The technique was most commonly applied to furniture, such as writing cabinets and chests.

Large quantities of Japanned ware were produced in England, France, Germany and Holland thanks to a book on the subject written by John Stalker and George Parker in 1688. The greatest exponent of the craft, however, was Gerhard Dagly of Liège, who worked in the court of Frederick III of Prussia. His distinctive style of decoration is characterized by the use of primary colours on a white ground—quite different from the Oriental style, which favoured black, red and gold. Although some very high-quality ware was produced, European products lacked the lustre and delicate artistry of genuine Oriental ware.

By the mid-18th century, Japanned work was in decline. However, it enjoyed a revival in the 19th century, when it was used to decorate and protect papier-mâché ware, then very popular in England, France, and the United States.