United States of America

C

Political Parties

Two major political parties exist in the United States in the 1990s. The Democratic Party was founded in the 1790s as the Anti-Federalists, became the Democratic-Republican Party in 1801, and was renamed the Democratic Party in 1828. The Republican Party was founded in 1854 as a third party and became one of the two major parties in 1860. Parties other than the Democratic and Republican parties are of only minor importance in most national and state elections, and no third-party candidate has ever won the presidency. Third parties have played only a minor role in Congress.

In the late 20th century the Democrats were split into two major factions. The northern Democrats as a rule favoured national action to solve social problems, emphasized government regulation of the economy, and advocated strong action to aid minorities. The southern Democrats were more conservative in fiscal, economic regulation, and social matters.

Republicans were less divided in their economic approach, favouring reduced social services to help balance the budget to lower inflation, and tax cuts to promote industrial development. Division among Republicans occurred on social issues involving such matters as abortion and civil rights, however. Political Parties in the United States.

D

Judiciary

The federal court system derives its powers from Article III of the Constitution. The system includes the Supreme Court of the United States, established by the Constitution; and 12 courts of appeal (sometimes called circuit courts), 91 district courts, and special courts such as the Tax Court, the Claims Court, and the Court of Veterans’ Appeals, all established by Congress. See Courts in the United States.

The federal courts perform two constitutional functions. First, they interpret the meaning of laws and administrative regulations; this is known as statutory construction. Second, the courts determine whether any law passed by Congress or state legislatures, or any administrative action taken by the national or state executive branches, violates the US Constitution; this is known as judicial review. Federal courts can declare null and void laws or actions, at the national and state levels, that violate the Constitution.

The nine justices of the Supreme Court and the other federal judges are nominated by the president with the advice and consent of the Senate. The president, in making district court nominations, usually follows the recommendations of senators from the president’s party. All federal judges and justices of the Supreme Court serve on good behaviour for life. They may be removed from office only through the process of impeachment, which has been used fewer than 20 times, and never successfully against a Supreme Court justice.

Decisions of the Supreme Court that involve the statutory construction of laws may be overturned by Congress. Decisions involving judicial review may be checked and balanced in either of two ways. The president and Senate may deliberately fill vacancies on the Supreme Court with new justices who can be expected to overturn the decision; or the Constitution can be amended, as was the case after the Supreme Court ruled income tax unconstitutional.

E

State and Local Government

The US Constitution provides for a federal system, with those powers not exercised by the national government retained by the states. States are denied the power to conduct foreign relations, enter into treaties or alliances, or lay tariffs. They may not coin currency, levy taxes on interstate commerce, or prevent the movement of persons across their borders. States may cooperate with one another through creation of interstate compacts, which require the approval of Congress. These often involve water resources, navigation, pollution control, or port development.

The national government and states are closely linked in an administrative system of cooperative federalism. This includes categorical grant programmes, in which the national government establishes operating standards and pays up to 90 per cent of the cost of programmes administered by the states; block grants for general purposes such as education or community development; and revenue sharing, whereby the national government distributes money to states and localities each year.

The major functions of the states include qualified control of voter eligibility requirements; administration of state and national elections; supervision of municipal and county government; promotion and regulation of commerce, industry, and agriculture; and maintenance of highways, prisons, hospitals, and mental-health facilities. The states also support extensive systems of higher education. They share with local units of government the responsibility for welfare, medical care for indigents, employment services, and other social services.

Almost all states are divided into territorial units called counties. In 1997 the United States had 3,043 counties. Louisiana is divided into 64 parishes, which are similar to counties. Alaska has no counties as such; much of the state is organized into 16 boroughs. In a number of states, such as Connecticut, counties have virtually no governmental function. In several states, notably Virginia, one or more cities are independent of any county organization and thus constitute primary divisions of the state. In relatively heavily populated areas, communities are organized into a total of 19,296 municipalities, which include cities, towns, villages, and boroughs. Municipalities generally provide basic services, including police, sanitation, and fire protection. Education at the elementary and secondary levels is usually supervised by school boards, which share authority over finance, curriculum, and teacher certification with state government. Also important are so-called special districts, which are independent, limited-purpose local government units dealing with water supply, flood control, fire protection, community development, housing, and other matters.

F

Health and Welfare

Through cooperative federalism, the national and state governments provide social services to individuals. The Social Security Act of 1935 provides financial protection to wage earners and their families when the wage earner retires, becomes disabled, or dies. Contributions are financed through payroll taxes and employer contributions, and benefits are indexed against the effects of inflation.

The national government and states also help fund unemployment insurance programmes. Health programmes include Medicare, a health insurance programme for the elderly, and Medicaid, a programme of assistance to the poor (see Medicare and Medicaid). The United States has extensive medical facilities of the highest quality, but gaining access to them remains a problem for a substantial segment of the population. It has been estimated that more than 30 million Americans have no private health insurance coverage and do not qualify for Medicare or Medicaid; perhaps twice that number either have inadequate basic coverage or do not have adequate coverage for catastrophic illness.

Federal, state, and local grants provide income assistance for the blind, disabled, and elderly poor, and assistance to poor families with dependent children. School lunch programmes for needy children and a food stamp programme for poor families are also provided.

G

Defence

The president is commander-in-chief of the US armed forces. The president’s orders commanding these forces are passed through the office of the Secretary of Defense to the various military commands. The military heads of the army, navy, air force, and marines serve as the Joint Chiefs of Staff, whose chair is designated by the president. The Joint Chiefs of Staff advise the president and Congress on military strategy and recommend expenditure levels and weapons systems.

Although the Selective Service System registers all male citizens over the age of 18, since 1973 the armed forces have been composed entirely of men and women volunteers. At the beginning of 2004 the armed forces consisted of 1,473,960 active-duty military personnel, including some 502,000 in the army, 173,595 in the marines, 376,750 in the navy, and 379,500 in the air force. United States Coast Guard personnel numbered 37,300 in the mid-1990s.

Major collective security agreements to which the United States is a party include the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and ANZUS, which links Australia and New Zealand with the United States.