Angola

A

Arrival of Europeans

When the representatives of the Portuguese Empire arrived in 1483, seeking the legendary kingdom of Prester John, as well as precious metals, they found the realm of the Kongo well established. The ruler of the state welcomed the newcomers, and in 1491 Portuguese traders and missionaries bearing gifts were sent to the court of Manikongo (king) Nzinga Nkuwu (reigned about 1482-1505), who converted to Christianity, as did the succeeding manikongo, Afonso I (reigned 1505-1543), who also accepted Portuguese guidance in the administration of his realm. The Portuguese, however, were more interested in profit from a booming trade in slaves than in either missionary work or spreading European civilization. The slave traffic, aided by local chiefs, gradually undermined the authority of the manikongo, and 25 years after Afonso’s death the Kongo state succumbed to the onslaught of the Jaga, a fierce nomadic people from the east.

B

Exploitation and Resistance

The Portuguese, meanwhile, had extended their reach southward to the area around and south of present-day Luanda, over which they soon claimed colonial authority; it was the title of the local ruler, ngola, that became the name of the country. Portugal appointed royal governors who tried to impose their will on the population, but foreign rule was stubbornly resisted. Prolonged warfare ensued, while slave raids helped to keep the country in continuous turmoil.

Practically no European settlement was attempted during this time, and by 1845 there were still only 1,800 Europeans in all of Angola. Much greater profits could be made from the slave trade, which went on almost uninterrupted throughout the 19th century. By that time, an estimated 3 million people had been exported.

Portugal did not gain full control over the country’s interior until the early 20th century. After that it was governed under the so-called regime do indigenato, an invidious system of economic exploitation, educational neglect, and political repression that remained in force until 1961.

In 1951 Angola’s official status was changed from colony to overseas province; soon after, a policy of accelerated European settlement was adopted—the futile attempt of the colonial power to stave off the inevitable. During the 1950s a nationalist movement grew rapidly, and in 1961 a guerrilla war against the Portuguese began.

C

Independence and Civil War

The nationalists, however, were split into three rival groups: the FNLA, the Marxist MPLA, and UNITA. All three had armed forces in the field, but none made much headway until the revolution in Portugal in April 1974. After that, the whole Portuguese colonial empire began to fall apart. The new Lisbon regime agreed to a transfer of power, and on November 11, 1975, Angola became independent.

Two governments claimed to represent the new nation, one formed by the MPLA in Luanda, the other by UNITA in Huambo. The ensuing civil war involved the superpowers: the MPLA was backed by the Soviet Union and aided by Cuban troops, while South Africa, the United States, and other Western powers allied themselves with UNITA and its leader, Jonas Savimbi. By early 1976 the MPLA had gained the upper hand, and its government, with MPLA leader Agostinho Neto as President, was gradually recognized throughout the world.

Neto died in 1979, and leadership of the nation was assumed by José Eduardo dos Santos. Guerrilla warfare continued, bolstered by South African military incursions into Angola, ostensibly in pursuit of Namibian insurgents, but intended to destabilize the dos Santos government.

D

Ceasefire and Renewed Conflict

In August 1988 negotiators for Angola, South Africa, and Cuba agreed to a comprehensive peace plan that included independence for Namibia. In May 1991 the last Cuban troops left Angola and the central government signed a ceasefire agreement with UNITA, to be supervised by UN peacekeepers. In multi-party elections held in September 1992 the MPLA won 129 of 220 seats in a newly constituted parliament, and UNITA won 70, while dos Santos defeated Savimbi in the presidential vote. UNITA rejected the election results, however, and renewed its military campaign. In 1993 fighting between government and UNITA forces intensified, and more than 1 million refugees fled their homes.

A new UN-backed peace plan, negotiated in Lusaka, Zambia, was formally signed by the government and UNITA in November 1994; in the last weeks of fierce fighting before the signing, UNITA suffered a severe blow with the loss of its stronghold of Huambo. The agreement called for demobilization, ceasefire, and the allocation of posts in central and regional government to UNITA.

Following serious ceasefire violations, deployment of a 7,000-strong UN verification force began in May 1995. Evidence of bad faith and delays in implementing the accord led to an extension of the UN mandate in February 1996, but in March dos Santos and Savimbi announced the formation of a government of national unity, and proposed a vice-presidential role for Savimbi, which he later rejected after dos Santos sacked and replaced the government. The National Assembly extended its term of office for a period between two and four years, in recognition of the difficulty in holding free and fair elections. A formal declaration that UNITA had completed the surrender of weapons and confinement of troops was made by the UN on December 13, 1996.

After numerous delays, a unified government was inaugurated in April 1997, with dos Santos remaining as president and UNITA becoming the largest opposition group in parliament. By June, however, tension had risen again; UNITA had repeatedly stalled the handover of the large regions under its control in Andulo, Bailundo, Nhareya, and Mongo in the centre of Angola. The peace process collapsed in July when renewed fighting in the north of the country caused the displacement of some 150,000 people.

UN sanctions preventing access by UNITA to foreign bank accounts, the banning of diamond exports from UNITA-controlled areas, and transport restrictions came into force in July. Following the suspension of UNITA ministers and deputies from the National Assembly and the government in September, divisions were reported within UNITA, and fighting in the north intensified. The 1994 Lusaka agreement with UNITA was formally rejected by the government in January 1999, and the UN Security Council recalled its peacekeeping troops in February, criticizing both Savimbi and dos Santos for lack of commitment to the peace process and warning of a potential “humanitarian catastrophe”. It continued its involvement, however, by establishing the United Nations Office in Angola (UNOA) to work for peace alongside government agencies. De Beers, the South African diamond-trading company, had imposed an unconditional embargo on diamonds from Angola in 1999, in an effort to stop diamond smuggling—a source of funding for the rebel forces. De Beers pulled out of the country in 2001.

Fighting and atrocities continued into 2000, with tensions along the Namibian and Zambian borders. The humanitarian situation deteriorated further, with aid and supplies vulnerable to rebel attacks and exploitation by the army. In September 2000 a historic congress was held where several opposition groups attempted to unite against the MPLA; however, no official alliance resulted. Around the same time, the Angolan government reported that it had successfully subdued several rebel towns.

E

The Death of Savimbi and the Road to Peace

In 2001 President dos Santos declared his intention not to run for a further term of office. In February 2002 his major opponent, UNITA’s leader Jonas Savimbi, was shot dead by the Angolan army. Savimbi’s death led to an end to the 27-year civil war, and a ceasefire was signed in April. Some commentators meanwhile remained wary of a UNITA backlash against the government in revenge for Savimbi’s killing, despite large numbers of UNITA troops being assimilated into the national force and many more returning to civilian life. In a conciliatory gesture, dos Santos confirmed his intention to hold elections within two years and in July Angola signed the 1997 Ottawa Convention on the banning of landmines. Dos Santos appointed a new prime minister in December—the first person to hold the position in three years. Fernando da Piedade Dias dos Santos is regarded as a close associate of the president. Talks also commenced on the development of a new constitution for the country. In June 2003 Isaias Samakuva was elected as the new leader of UNITA.